Fig. 3: Effects of SGLT2 inhibitor and sulfonylurea on secretion of IL-1β and TNF-α from macrophages.

ELISA assay measurement of IL-1β secretion from macrophages exposed to 2 mM ATP (a) or 0.2 mM palmitate (b) with 0.1 μg/mL LPS priming (sulfonylurea group: n = 32, SGLT2 inhibitor group: n = 29). TNF-α secretion from macrophages exposed to ATP (c) or palmitate (d). Experiments were repeated twice or three times per sample; bar graphs are drawn using mean values of those results per sample, whereas the statistical significances are derived from raw data. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. Two-sided paired t test; *P < 0.05, **P < 0.01, and ***P < 0.001 versus baseline. mRNA levels encoding IL1B (e), TNFA (f), and NLRP3 (g) (n = 6 per group). Two-sided paired t test or Wilcoxon signed rank test. ^†Statistical significance for the time × group interaction evaluated by repeat-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) (Non-normally distributed variables were log transformed for analysis and back transformed for presentation). h Representative protein levels of molecules regarding NLRP3 inflammasome activation with or without LPS and ATP stimulation. IL-1β interleukin-1β, NF-κB nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells, NLRP3 NLR family, pyrin ___domain-containing 3, PA palmitate, SEM standard error of the mean, SGLT2 sodium–glucose cotransporter 2, TNF-α tumor necrosis factor-α. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.