Fig. 2: CD63⁺A33⁺ exosomes derived from HFD mice induce insulin resistance in mice fed an HFD.

a Glucose (GTT) and insulin tolerance tests (ITT) for C57BL/6 mice (n = 10) after receiving adoptive transfer of mouse CD63⁺A33⁺ fecal exosomes for 14 days while mice were fed HFD. Filled circle—PBS, filled triangle—L-Exo, and filled rectangle—H-Exo. b Glucose infusion rate (GIR) during the clamp assay (n = 4/group). c Blood glucose levels during the clamp assay (n = 4/group). d Plasma insulin levels at basal (−10 min) and during the clamp assay (120 min). e, f Hepatic glucose production and % suppression of hepatic glucose production (n = 4/group). g Whole-body glycolysis rate determined by the clamp assay (n = 4/group). h Glucose uptake by brown adipose (BAT), white adipose tissue (WAT), and muscle tissue after the clamp assay (n = 4/group). i Plasma free-fatty acids at basal and during the clamp assay (n = 4/group). j–m GTT (upper panels) and ITT (lower panels) for either C57BL/6 or C57BL/6 germ-free mice after receiving adoptive transfer of human exosomes (j), mouse and human exosomes (k), mouse exosomes with or without antibiotic treatment (l), and nanoparticles from L-Exo or H-Exo with added (PC+) or depleted PC (PC−) for 14 days while mice were fed HFD (n = 5/group). Data are represented as the mean ± SD. One-way ANOVA with a Tukey post hoc test. * < 0.05; ** < 0.01, and *** < 0.001. Statistical significances were shown between the PBS and H-Exo group or as otherwise indicated. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.