Fig. 5: Techno-economic analysis of different battery recycling technologies.

a Schematic of the pyro-, hydro- and direct routes. b Cost and e revenue splits based on the hydro- and direct recovery routes for different degraded LFP batteries. The residual lithium content indicates the degree of failure of the LFP cathode since this factor has a significant effect on the economic analysis. c Pie chart showing the cost proportions based on the hydro-recovery method. d Cost comparison on different lithium salts. f Profit calculations for the hydro- and direct recovery. g Comprehensive comparison of different battery recycling technologies.