Fig. 4: Global and frontal-specific co-expression modules in macaque brains.

a WGCNA gene hierarchical clustering dendrogram and modules of co-expression. Y-axis represents the co-expression distance between genes while x-axis represents individual gene. A total of 20 distinct co-expression modules are identified, visualized by colored bars at the bottom of the dendrogram. b Module-region association. Heatmap plot of hierarchical clustering of these 20 modules with anatomic ordering from the frontal lobe to the insula. Each module is grouped by specific gene clusters. ME module eigengene. c The module dendrogram and anatomical patterning of four modules (M1–M4) identified in (b) with averaged eigengenes in frontal regions are demonstrated on cortical surface. OMPFC orbitomedial prefrontal cortex, DPFC dorsal prefrontal cortex, SMA supplementary motor area. d Top functional enrichments for genes identified in M1, M2, M3 and M4, which were sorted by FDR-corrected −log₁₀(P). Statistical significance of the overlaps between each gene set and each module was assessed by a one-sided hypergeometric test and FDR corrected. e Percentage of marker genes enriched in different neurotransmitters in M1–M4. f Illustration of gene–gene connections for module M3, including top 19 hub genes. For visualization, 185 genes with intra-module expression similarity >0.3 were shown. Myelination-related hub genes, like CNP, are highly expressed in some cortical regions. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.