Fig. 9: Comparisons between model results and geological and geophysical observations.

a The distribution of magmatism on the Tibetan Plateau (Fig. 2a) and the transect ___location (blue line) for the seismic tomography result in Panel c. b Magmatic history in Type 1 (Run 3), Type 2 (Run 6), Type 3 (Run 9), Type 4 (Run 13), Type 5 (Run 18), and Type 6 (Run 23) models, respectively. Background shadings illustrate the time-space range of on-plateau magmatism (see Fig. 2a, b). A more detailed presentation of this comparison is also shown in Fig. 7. c The P-wave seismic tomography cross-section of the upper mantle beneath North India and Tibet Plateau (after Li et al. 2008)⁸¹. The potential upper surface of the subducted/delaminated Asian lithosphere (black dashed line) is based on the results from P and S receiver functions⁴⁶. More seismic tomography results along different transects are shown in Supplementary Fig. S22. d–i the “present-day” snapshots in Runs 4, 6, 9, 13, 18, and 23, respectively. Contours of high-seismic-wave-speed anomalies below Tibet are from Panel c. Note that the slab-like structures in e, f, and h are delaminated/delaminating Strong Lithosphere, i.e., Asian lithosphere.