Fig. 2: The physical and electrochemical characterization of electrocatalyst.

a SEM image of Au–Ni electrode. b XRD of Ni foam and Au-Ni electrode. c XPS spectra of Au–Ni electrode. d CV curve of Au–Ni foam and Ni foam electrode in 1 M KOH with 0.05 M HMF. e CV curve of Au-Ni electrode in 1.0 M KOH with and without 0.05 M HMF, HMFCA, FFCA, and FDCA. f CV curve of Au–Ni electrode in 0.01 M, 0.1 M, and 1.0 M KOH. g Product yield of FDCA, FFCA, DFF, HMFCA, and H2 at various potentials with the same charge. h Faradaic efficiency and HMFCA selectivity at various potentials of 0.33−0.93 V. i Faradaic efficiency of two pathways at various potentials of 0.33−0.93 V. The potentials reported in this study are referred to RHE unless a special statement is made. The error bars represent the standard deviation for three independent measurements.