Fig. 1: iEEG recording sites, task design, and behavioral modeling.

a Reconstruction of iEEG recording sites in dMPFC (top) and INS (bottom) across all participants plotted on a standardized group brain after mirroring all channels to the right hemisphere for dMPFC and left hemisphere for INS. b Participants pressed a button to estimate the time when lights finished moving around a circle. The gray target zone cue displayed error tolerance around the 1 s target interval. Audiovisual feedback is indicated by the tolerance cue turning green for wins and red for losses. A black tick mark displayed RT feedback. For 4 patients, blue neutral feedback was given with no RT marker on 12% of randomly selected trials. c Tolerance and outcome data for an example participant. Larger markers show block level accuracy; smaller markers show binary single trial outcomes. Model fit using logistic regression provides single trial estimates of win probability, which is converted to expected value. d Predictions for RL model predictors. Error bars indicate group means with standard deviation between participants. Gray dots indicate means for each participant (n = 10). e Effect of previous RT (left) and previous RPE magnitude (right) on current trial RT change. f Convergent results are shown for a larger behavioral dataset from a previous study⁴⁹. Slopes depict regression coefficients. Shaded areas depict 95% confidence intervals around the fitted coefficients. pRPE = positive reward prediction error, nRPE = negative reward prediction error. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.