Fig. 2: The effect of PCS on the Li⁺ deposition in metal negative electrodes.

a CEs of Li||Cu cells with PCS and CS by the Aurbach method using 1 M LiPF₆ in EC/DEC. Time-controlled CCD of Li||Cu cells with CS (b) and PCS (c). The plating/stripping protocol was initiated at a current density of 0.2 mA cm⁻², with the current density incremented by 0.2 mA cm⁻² following each cycle. Each platting step was maintained for 1 h. Rate performance (d) and long-term plating/stripping performance (e) of Li||Li symmetric cells with PCS and CS. CLSM images and surface roughness curves of Li negative electrodes in Li||Li symmetric cell with CS (f) and PCS (g) after 20 cycles of plating/stripping (1 mA cm⁻², 1 mAh cm⁻²). Top-view SEM images of the Li deposition in Li||Li symmetric cells with CS (h) and PCS (1 mA cm⁻², 1 mAh cm⁻²) (i). j The calculated dissociation energy and F–P atom distance of LiPF₆ with the existence of CS and PCS. k The ESP comparison of PCS, CS and PP. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.