Table 3 Angiogenic factors relating to anti-inflammatory and immunoregulatory of EPCs

VEGF

CD34⁺/CD133⁺

↓ inflammation

↓ TLR4-NF-κB and PI3K-Akt

^39,40,43

TGF-β

CD34⁺/CD133⁺

↓pro-inflammatory cytokine

↑ M2 and Treg

↓Th17

Unknown

^45,48

FGF

ECFCs

↓IL-1, TNF-α, IL-6, and MCP-1

↓CD40

ERK1/2

NF-κB2

^51,52

G-CSF/GM-CSF

CD34⁺/CD133⁺

↑ CD103⁺ DCs

↑M2, Th2 and Treg

↓TNF-α and IL-1β

↓T cell recruitment

Unknown

Epigenetic modifications

^53,54

HGF

ECFCs

↑ IL-1Ra

↓TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β

↑CD14⁺ and IL-10

↓CD4⁺

 ↑ Th2

NF-κB

ERK1/2

^20,57,61

PDGF

ECFCs

↑IL-4, IL-10, and IL-13

↓MMP-3, MMP-13, COX-2, IL-1, IL-6, and TNF- α

↑ M2 and Treg

NF-κB p65 translocation

PI3K/Akt-MEK/ERK

^63,64