Extended Data Fig. 8: The canopy structure reconstructed by the 3D ray-tracing model over the Amazon rainforest (a, 100 m × 100 m) and the corn field (b,50 m × 50 m).

The Amazon rainforest structure was extracted by the LiDAR data acquired over a site located at (E 54.99, S 3.37) in 2018²². Detailed input soil-leaf-canopy parameters were as in Supplementary Table 1. Multi-angular EVI, NIRv and NDVI simulations by the 3D ray-tracing model over the Corn Belt and Amazon rainforest (c) had close values at the hotspot direction (phase angle = 0 when the solar and sensor directions coincide), while EVI and NIRv were always much higher over the Corn Belt than the Amazon rainforest at the off-hotspot directions (phase angle > 0, for example, at nadir view but the solar zenith angle is 45° for the standard MAIAC surface reflectance product). The phase angle in (c) is the angle between the solar and sensor directions. The ‘Spectrum Replaced’ represents the simulation of the corn field while the soil-leaf spectrum was replaced by the spectrum of the Amazon rainforest (c).