Table 3 Association between birth outcomes and the upper limit of ideal gestational weight gain ranges among 1,691 women.

Women’s perceived upper limit of ideal GWG categorized according to the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare guidelines^e	Weight gain at 40 weeks^+c (kg) [95% CI^b]	Birth weight (grams) [95% CI^b]	Birth weight z-score [95% CI^b]	Gestational length (weeks) [95% CI^b]	Post-partum weight retention^++d (kg) [95% CI^b]
Lower than guidelines	−2.6***^a	−173*^a	−0.5**^a	0.0	−0.3
Lower than guidelines	[−3.8, −1.4]	[−312, −33]	[−0.9, −0.2]	[−0.4, 0.5]	[−1.7, 1.1]
Within guidelines but lower than upper limit (12 kg)	−0.9***^a	−53*^a	−0.1	−0.1	−0.3
Within guidelines but lower than upper limit (12 kg)	[−1.3, −0.5]	[−99, −7]	[−0.2, 0.0]	[−0.3, 0.0]	[−0.8, 0.1]
Same as upper limit (12 kg)	0	0	0	0	0
Same as upper limit (12 kg)	Reference	Reference	reference	Reference	Reference
Higher than guidelines	0.8*^a	11	0.0	0.0	0.3
Higher than guidelines	[0.1, 1.5]	[−70, 93]	[−0.2, 0.2]	[−0.2, 0.3]	[−0.5, 1.1]
No limit/not sure	−0.7*^a	−38	−0.1	−0.0	0.4
No limit/not sure	[−1.2, −0.1]	[−99, 24]	[−0.2, 0.1]	[−0.2, 0.2]	[−0.2, 1.0]

^a*p < 0.05; **p < 0.01; ***p < 0.001.
^b95% CI: 95% confidence interval.
^c+Weight gain at 40 weeks was calculated from all antenatal weight gain measurements available assuming linear increase in gestational weight in the third trimester.
^d++Calculated from self-reported weight at 12 months post-partum. Sample size for this analysis was N = 1,032.
^eAll models adjusted for maternal age, parity, height, BMI, history of previous preterm delivery, maternal education, family income, smoking status during pregnancy, and sex of infant.

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