Table 1 Operational definitions of research variables.

Performance expectancy (PE)

University students’ expectations for enhancing learning outcomes through participation in the flipped classroom teaching model

Venkatesh et al.¹³, Chen and Wu³⁶, Clark³⁰, Riddle and Gier²⁹, Singh²⁸, Plageras et al.⁵⁸

Effort expectancy (EEX)

University students’ perceived difficulty in mastering the skills and knowledge required for the flipped classroom

Chen and Wu³⁶, Jia et al.³¹, Plageras et al.⁵⁸

Peer influence (PI)

In the flipped classroom environment, students’ perspectives on using this teaching model and its influence on individual choices

Chen and Wu³⁶, Kissi et al.⁵⁹, Ruiz³², Plageras et al.⁵⁸

Learning engagement (ENGA)

The level of active participation of university students in the flipped classroom, encompassing three aspects: cognitive engagement (CE), emotional engagement (EEN), and behavioral engagement (BE)

Zimmerman³³, Martin and Bolliger³⁵, Tang and Hew⁶⁰

Learning capability (SKIL)

The ability of students to acquire and apply knowledge and skills through the flipped classroom, including four aspects: critical thinking (CT), communication (CS), creativity (CREA), and collaboration (CSK)

Voogt et al.²², Tucker⁹, Zainuddin and Halili²⁷, Sari and Wardhani²⁴, Nuraini et al.²⁶,Solichah et al.²³, Pratama et al.²⁵