Table 1 The model used in this study and its characteristics.

Horizontal resolution

15 km

Horizontal grids

346 × 311

Vertical layers

35

Radiation Physics

RRTMG⁶⁶

Microphysics

Lin⁶⁸

Cumulus Physics

Kain–Fritsch⁶⁹

PBL Physics

YSU⁶⁷

Land Surface Model

Noah-MP^70,71

Vegetation Physical Progress

Dynamic

Canopy Stomatal Resistance

Ball-Berry⁷²

Soil Moisture Factor for Stomatal Resistance

Noah scheme

Runoff and Groundwater

SIMGM⁷³

Surface Layer Drag Coefficient

Monin-Obukhov

Supercooled Liquid Water

NY06⁷⁴

Frozen Soil Permeability

Koren99⁷⁵

Radiation Transfer

Two-stream applied to vegetated fraction⁷⁶

Snow Surface Albedo

CLASS⁷⁷

Rainfall and Snowfall

Jordan91⁷⁸