Fig. 5: Different polycentric characteristics of waste governance in Shanghai, Tokyo and Hong Kong.

a Shows that the polycentricity of Shanghai’s waste governance is featured by the positive strategies of the three stakeholders. b represents the two main players—formal recyclers and households—engaged in waste governance work with a positive strategy. c denotes that informal recyclers and households opt for a positive strategy in Hong Kong’s waste governance, while formal recyclers provide limited contributions with a negative strategy.