Fig. 5: Hetero-deformation structure and hetero-deformation induced strengthening.

a Dislocations in the sample solutioned at 450°C/20 min and peak aging after tensile. b KAM mapping of the tensile fracture of the sample. c Crack propagation path of the sample during three-point bending testing. d Loading-Unloading-Reloading (LUR) curves. e The third hysteresis loop of (d), in which \({\sigma }_{{{{{{\rm{r}}}}}}}\) and \({\sigma }_{{{{{{\rm{u}}}}}}}\) were defined using 5% slope reduction of Young’s modulus. f HDI stress and the ratio of HDI stress to flow stress derived from the LUR hysteresis loops.