Fig. 1: Schematic diagram of traditional electrode deterioration mechanism and the preparation and healing mechanism of the liquid metal electrode.

a Schematic diagram of the deterioration mechanism for conventional electrodes, including sintering, poisoning, and spoilage in sequence. b Schematic diagram of LM electrode in different states or processes. i Bi₂O₃ dispersed LM electrode. ii The evolved state induced by electrohydrodynamics. iii The electrocatalytic CO₂RR on the evolved electrode. iv The self-healing process of the deactivated Bi catalyst in LM sea, including re-dispersion and electrochemical reduction. c Schematic diagram for the preparation of Bi₂O₃–LM mixture.