Fig. 2: Violin plots highlighting the effect of the 16 main crops on crop total pesticide use.

Crop pesticide use was assessed using the Treatment Frequency Index (TFI), which quantifies the number of applications at the full recommended dose. Violin plots were created using the observed data. Red points represent estimated marginal means and red lines associated 95% Wald confidence intervals (computed using the delta method) obtained from a generalized linear mixed effect model (model 7 Supplementary Table 1). Estimated means were averaged (or “marginalized”) across climatic regions. Violin plots sharing the same letter are not significantly different at P < 0.05 based on a set of two-tailed Wald tests, which assess whether the pairwise differences in crop means are different from zero. Multiple comparisons were adjusted using the false discovery rate method. A total of 14,456 observations (i.e., one crop of a cropping system at a given time point) were available for this figure.