Fig. 4: In-situ/Ex-situ structure and composition measurement.

a, b In-situ Raman line spectra and 2D contour plots of the p-VHCF electrode. c–g Ex-situ XPS spectra of the p-VHCF electrode at different charging and discharging states (symbols 1-5, respectively, represent the states of 0.52, 0.6, 0.9, 1.2, and 0.52 V). c V 2p spectra and d–e valence distribution ratio diagrams of V. f Fe 2p spectra and (g) valence distribution ratio diagram of Fe. h CV curve of the p-VHCF electrode during the redox reaction.