Fig. 4: Catalytic performances and stabilities.

a LSV curves (b) constant potential (−0.7 V vs. RHE) electrolysis (c) CV curves (d) FE and current density at −0.7 V (vs. RHE) of the Bi–Pd IMCs. e FE and current density of S1 (f) S4 (g) S6 in all potentials range (h) and stability test at −0.7 V vs. RHE in flow cell. Reaction conditions: catalyst mass loading = 1 mg cm−2, effective area = 1.0 × 1.0 cm2, flow rate of CO2 = 30 mL min−1, flow rate of electrolyte = 20 mL min-1, the electrolyte =1 M KOH.