Introduction

Bullying victimization is an important public health issue that has received worldwide attention1. It refers to individuals being repeatedly exposed to negative behaviors from others over time, and find it difficult to defend themselves2. Studies conducted in about 80 countries and regions have shown that approximately 30% of adolescents have experienced bullying victimization3,4, with an alarming prevalence rate of 20% in China5. Experiencing bullying victimization is associated with a series of severe negative psychological and behavioral consequences in adolescents, such as anxiety6,7,8,9, depression6,7,9, suicidal ideation7,9,10,11, sleep problems9,12,13,14, and substance use disorders7,15. As studies continue to reveal the extensive reach and profound impact of bullying, as well as its enduring effects1,3,4,7,16,17, and with the emergence of theories linking victimization to mental and behavioral addictions18,19, the relationship between bullying and adolescent internet addiction has increasingly become a focus of scholarly interest20,21,22. This study, therefore, aims to explore the intricate relationship between bullying victimization and adolescent internet addiction, considering the psychological mechanisms that may underlie this association.

Bullying victimization, which encompasses physical, verbal, relational, and cyber forms, is a negative interpersonal experience that affects individual development23,24,25. The convenience26, anonymity27, and social support provided by the internet26,28,29 make adolescents prone to engage with social networking platforms to enhance emotional and interpersonal support and communication30,31, which can lead to problematic and compulsive social behavior, ultimately resulting in internet addiction32,33. Research has found that adolescents who have experienced bullying victimization are more than three times more likely to have experienced internet addiction34, and there is a significant positive correlation between bullying victimization and adolescent internet addiction20,21,22,35. Bullying victimization increases the risk of internet addiction in rural Chinese adolescents36. Similarly, bullying victimization significantly predicts adolescent internet addiction35,37. According to the Life History Strategy Theory38, individuals adjust their behavior and decision-making based on their surrounding environment and personal experiences, and tend to lean towards either a slow life history strategy or a fast life history strategy. When the environment is safe and predictable, individuals tend to choose the slow life history strategy, which focuses on survival tasks, maintaining physical health, learning knowledge and skills, and raising offspring, showing less impulsive behavior and better self-control. When the environment is harsh and unpredictable, individuals tend to choose the fast life history strategy, which focuses on reproductive tasks, seeking immediate pleasure or temporary satisfaction, and showing greater impulsivity and lower self-control. Combined with the characteristics of bullying victimization, the internet may become an important carrier for individuals to obtain instant satisfaction under impulsive and low self-control conditions39,40.

In general, the relationship between bullying victimization and internet addiction is often mediated by negative emotions. The study found that bullying victimization brings a series of negative emotional experiences to adolescents41,42,43, as they may worry about experiencing bullying victimization again44,45 and often become anxious34,46. As defined by anxiety47,48, victims experience unpredictability and worry about future occurrences. The chronic stress model posits that such negative interpersonal experiences accumulate psychological distress, with anxiety being a notable outcome49,50. Bullying, encompassing physical, verbal, and relational forms1,51,52,53, severely disrupts individuals coping mechanisms54, leading to increased fear, helplessness, and anxiety55. Research shows that adolescents who have experienced bullying victimization being over four times more likely to experience anxiety than those who have not, while those who have experienced severe bullying victimization are over 18 times more likely to experience anxiety34. Anxiety plays a mediating role between bullying victimization and internet addiction56. Furthermore, longitudinal studies have also found that bullying victimization can significantly predict adolescent anxiety57. Similarly, when experiencing negative emotions, individuals may choose to use the internet to regulate and escape18,58. Studies have found a significant positive correlation between anxiety and adolescent internet addiction59,60, with anxiety significantly predicting adolescent internet addiction60,61,62. This prediction has also been found in longitudinal studies63,64. According to strain theories, bullying victimization is a type of stress for adolescents65. When faced with this stress, adolescents often experience insecurity66, avoidance behavior, more inactive behavior67, and anxiety68,69. Therefore, the use of the internet often becomes a coping mechanism for adolescents in such negative situations70, which may lead to the formation of internet addiction.

In addition, the influence of bullying victimization on individuals also extends to the field of cognitive psychology, one of which is inhibitory control. Inhibitory control refers to an individual’s conscious regulation of behavior, especially suppressing behaviors that are detrimental to development71,72, and is an important component of cognitive function. Bullying victimization also has a negative impact on inhibitory control in adolescents. Research has found a significant negative correlation between the degree of bullying victimization and the volume of the left caudate and putamen in adolescents, with individuals with higher bullying victimization scores showing greater reductions in putamen volume over time73. The caudate plays a crucial role in the selection tendency of inhibitory control74, while the putamen regulates the relationship between inhibitory control and addictive behaviors75,76. In addition, the default mode network (DMN) of bullying victimization individuals is disrupted in connection with other multi-brain networks77. These network connectivity efficiencies are usually related to inhibitory control6,78. Studies have found that the executive functions of bullying victimization children (inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory) are impaired to varying degrees79. Therefore, bullying victimization can affect the inhibitory control function of adolescents. Inhibitory control can inhibit individuals’ risky behavior78,80,81, including internet addiction60. Studies have found that adolescents with internet addiction have lower levels of inhibitory control task completion82,83, and DMN connectivity is disrupted84. Therefore, high levels of inhibitory control can prevent the occurrence of adolescent internet addiction.

Among these negative effects of bullying victimization on individuals, there are often links between each other. Study found that negative emotions can affect individual cognitive processing85,86. Similarly, anxiety can also impair inhibitory control87,88. Studies have found that laboratory-induced anxiety impairs early and late event-related potential components of both emotional and cognitive inhibitory control89, and may call for higher-level cognitive resources to maintain and complete inhibitory control tasks90. This phenomenon has also been found in retrospective studies91. Moreover, research has found that anxiety significantly predicts adolescent inhibitory control60.

In summary, this study constructs a chain mediation model to delve into the psychological mechanisms linking bullying victimization with adolescent internet addiction. The study posits bullying victimization as the independent variable and internet addiction as the dependent variable, with anxiety and inhibitory control serving as mediators. The hypotheses are as follows:

H1

Bullying victimization can significantly predict adolescent internet addiction.

H2

Bullying victimization can significantly predict adolescent anxiety, which in turn can significantly predict adolescent internet addiction.

H3

Bullying victimization can significantly predict adolescent inhibitory control, which can significantly predict adolescent internet addiction.

H4

Anxiety and inhibitory control had a chain mediating effect between bullying victimization and internet addiction in adolescents.

The mediation model is outlined in Fig. 1, illustrating the proposed relationships and the interplay between the variables under investigation.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Mediation hypothesis model.

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Methods

Participants

Convenience sampling was used to select 1915 middle school students from 7 schools in Shandong, Shanxi, Hebei, Sichuan, and Hunan provinces from February to March 2024. Prior to this, the study had obtained approval from the Biomedical Ethics Committee of Jishou University. The survey was distributed in electronic form through class group chats with the presentation of the research content, data anonymity, confidentiality, and use. Participants could complete the electronic questionnaire in approximately 20 min. Online informed consent was obtained from all participants and their guardians. The study was conducted in accordance with the provisions of the Declaration of Helsinki. After excluding invalid data (including responses characterized by patterned answers, unusually short completion times, and instances of disregarding reverse-scored or irrelevant items), the final analysis sample of the study consisted of 1673 participants (695 males, 978 females) with an average age of 15.86 years (SD = 0.74).

The choice of these specific provinces was intentional to ensure a geographically diverse sample, thereby enhancing the generalizability of our findings across different regional contexts. Partner schools in these provinces were selected based on their willingness to participate and their extensive experience in facilitating research initiatives. The schools included in our study span across different regions, encompassing a wide array of socio-economic backgrounds and educational settings, and providing a rich tapestry for our investigation into the impact of bullying victimization on adolescent mental health.

Measurement tools

Bullying victimization

Bullying victimization was assessed using a single question, which detailed the definition of bullying victimization as “repeatedly and frequently being subjected to negative behaviors such as hitting, kicking, pushing, threatening, teasing, insulting, exclusion, spreading rumors, sending hurtful emails or messages by others in situations of power or status imbalance”92. Participants were asked to recall their experiences over the past 30 days and respond using a five-level rating (0 = never, 1 = once a month, 2 = two to three times a month, 3 = once a week, 4 = several times a week, 5 = almost every day). This tool had been previously used in other studies93.

Internet addiction

The level of internet addiction among adolescents was measured using the revised and validated Internet Addiction Scale by Wei Qi94. The scale consisted of 8 items, rated on a Likert scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The total score of the items represented the level of internet addiction, ranging from 8 to 40, with higher scores indicating higher levels of internet addiction. The Cronbach’s α for the sample in this study was 0.889.

Anxiety

The anxiety level of adolescents was measured using the anxiety subscale of the Depression-Anxiety-Stress Self-Rating Scale, revised and validated by Gong Xu et al.95. The subscale comprised 7 items, rated on a 4-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all) to 4 (completely). The total score of the items represented the level of anxiety, ranging from 7 to 28, with higher scores indicating higher levels of anxiety. The Cronbach’s α for the sample in this study was 0.878.

Inhibitory control

The inhibitory control subscale from the Executive Function Scale developed by Huang Chunhui et al.96 was employed to measure the inhibitory control level of adolescents. The subscale included 6 items, each rated from 1 (often) to 3 (never). The total score of the items represented the level of inhibitory control, ranging from 6 to 18, with higher scores indicating higher levels of inhibitory control. The Cronbach’s α for the sample in this study was 0.859.

Statistical analysis

Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS 26.0 software. Firstly, a method bias test was conducted, and if the threshold was less than 40%, it was considered that there was no obvious common method bias in the study97. Subsequently, descriptive statistics and correlation analysis were conducted for the demographic characteristics and main variables of the study participants. Before further analysis, the data for the main variables were standardized. Finally, to test our hypotheses, the relationship between bullying victimization and adolescent internet addiction was examined using the PROCESS plugin (Model 6) in SPSS, investigating the chain mediating effect of anxiety and inhibitory control98. In this process, 5,000 bootstrap resampling iterations were used to assess model fit and estimate the 95% confidence interval (95% CI), ensuring robustness in the data analysis99. Gender and age were controlled as covariates in the analysis. The significance level was set at α = 0.05.

Results

Common method bias test

The results of the common method bias test in this study revealed two factors with eigenvalues greater than 1. The first factor accounted for 32.63% of the total variance, which was below the threshold of 40%. This suggests that there is no significant risk of common method bias in this study.

Correlation analysis

Table 1 shows the results indicating significant positive correlations between bullying victimization and anxiety (r = 0.170, p < 0.001), as well as between bullying victimization and internet addiction (r = 0.094, p < 0.001). There was also a significant negative correlation between bullying victimization and inhibitory control (r = -0.151, p < 0.001). Anxiety was significantly positively correlated with internet addiction (r = 0.435, p < 0.001) and negative correlation with inhibitory control (r = -0.473, p < 0.001). Inhibitory control showed a significant negative correlation with internet addiction (r = − 0.394, p < 0.001).

Table 1 Correlation analysis.
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Mediation analysis

The results from Table 2 and Fig. 2 indicate that bullying victimization significantly and directly predicts adolescent internet addiction (β = 0.098, SE = 0.024, p < 0.001). However, when adding the mediator variables, the direct prediction of bullying victimization on adolescent internet addiction is no longer significant (β = 0.006, SE = 0.022, p > 0.05). Furthermore, the mediation model revealed that bullying victimization significantly predicts adolescent anxiety (β = 0.175, SE = 0.024, p < 0.001), and anxiety significantly predicts adolescent internet addiction (β = 0.317, SE = 0.024, p < 0.001). Bullying victimization also significantly predicts inhibitory control (β = − 0.076, SE = 0.022, p < 0.001), and inhibitory control significantly predicts adolescent internet addiction (β = − 0.237, SE = 0.024, p < 0.001). Finally, anxiety significantly negatively predicts inhibitory control (β = − 0.455, SE = 0.022, p < 0.001). The proportion of mediation paths can be found in Table 3.

Table 2 Chain mediation model test.
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Fig. 2
figure 2

Chain mediation model test (***p < 0.001).

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Table 3 Path analysis of chain mediation model.
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Discussion

This study uncovers the intricate interplay between bullying victimization and adolescent internet addiction, elucidating the chain mediation effects of anxiety and inhibitory control. The research framework encompasses both negative emotional responses (anxiety) and positive cognitive functions (inhibitory control). Our findings demonstrate that bullying victimization is a significant predictor of adolescent anxiety and inversely impacts inhibitory control. Anxiety is shown to negatively influence inhibitory control while concurrently acting as a positive predictor of adolescent internet addiction. Conversely, inhibitory control is identified as a negative predictor of internet addiction. These interconnections shed light on the internal psychological dynamics linking bullying victimization with the propensity for adolescent internet addiction.

Our research indicates that bullying victimization exerts a substantial direct influence on the likelihood of adolescent internet addiction. However, this influence becomes insignificant when accounting for the mediating roles of anxiety and inhibitory control. Previous research found that bullying victimization increases the risk of adolescent internet use36 and the incidence of internet addiction is 3 to 5 times higher in adolescents who have experienced bullying than those who have not34. At the same time, bullying victimization significantly predicted adolescent Internet addiction20,37. Nevertheless, the inclusion of mediating variables in our study attenuates the direct predictive impact of bullying on internet addiction. Bullying victimization is recognized as a source of profound emotional distress for individuals100,101, impairing social interaction skills102,103, and damaging brain structures integral to behavior and emotion regulation104. Additionally, factors such as personality traits, fear of retaliation, and low social support may prevent victims from employing more effective strategies to protect themselves from further bullying or to mitigate the cascade of negative effects stemming from their victimization. The repercussions of bullying are multifaceted, extending beyond these functions, and potentially propelling affected individuals to seek emotional modulation and refuge in the digital realm. As our study illustrates, the predictive power of bullying on adolescent internet addiction diminishes with the consideration of mediating factors.

Anxiety, a critical mediating factor in our study, is significantly predicted by bullying victimization and, in turn, predicts adolescent internet addiction. Therefore, anxiety is one of the important mediating variables in the prediction of bullying victimization on adolescent internet addiction. Previous research has found that bullying victimization increases the risk of adolescent anxiety43,46, with adolescents experiencing bullying having 3 to 18 times higher risk of anxiety than those who have not experienced bullying34,105. At the same time, the longitudinal study found that bullying victimization and anxiety have a two-way predictive effect57. Additionally, both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies have found that anxiety significantly predicts adolescent internet addiction61,63,64, and which is conforming to general strain theories65. Adolescents who have experienced bullying victimization are often anxious about being bullied again. Inhibited by anxiety, adolescents who have experienced bullying may adopt a range of emotional regulation strategies. Those with lower regulatory capabilities might turn to the internet as a medium for emotional support, alleviating negative emotions, and diverting attention, potentially leading to internet addiction when over-reliance and misuse occur.

Our findings also highlight that bullying victimization significantly predicts adolescent inhibitory control, a cognitive function closely associated with the regulation of daily behaviors106. Therefore, this study found that inhibition control significantly predicted adolescent Internet addiction, which is also consistent with the characteristics of inhibition control. Previous research has found that bullying victimization is related to structural abnormalities in the bilateral paracentral, posterior cingulate cortex, and hippocampus of adolescents77,107. These areas are usually related to individual inhibitory control108,109,110. Therefore, bullying victimization may impair adolescent inhibitory control. Lower inhibitory control and higher impulsivity are core structures of addictive behavior111. Studies have found that addictive behavior is associated with lower inhibitory control and higher impulsivity112,113. A large-scale meta-analysis also found that internet addiction is associated with deficits in inhibitory control114. These evidences show that bullying victimization can not only affect individual psychosocial functioning, but even affect cognitive psychology. The influence on these functions in turn affects the level of Internet addiction among adolescents.

There is a relationship between the influence of bullying victimization on individual emotion and cognition. In this study, it was found that anxiety significantly predicted inhibitory control in adolescents. Previous research has found that anxiety can impair an individual’s level of inhibitory control87,88, and significantly negatively predicts adolescent inhibitory control60. At the same time, individuals may recruit higher-level attention resources to maintain the negative impact of anxiety on inhibitory control90,115. According to the self-depletion theory116, when individuals regulate emotions, they need to consume cognitive resources. When an individual’s cognitive resources are continuously depleted, there is a deficit in inhibitory control when engaging in control behaviors, leading to increased risky behavior117, such as internet addiction118. Therefore, bullying victimization can cause adolescents negative emotions, and this negative emotion is an important risk factor for adolescent internalization and externalization.

This study fills a critical gap in current research by exploring the underlying mechanisms linking bullying victimization to internet addiction. However, when considering the mediating roles of anxiety and inhibitory control, the direct predictive effect diminishes, highlighting the intricate psychological pathways at play. Practically, these findings underscore the urgent need for multifaceted interventions. Educators and policymakers should prioritize initiatives that not only address bullying prevention but also enhance adolescents’ emotional well-being and self-regulation skills. By fostering supportive environments and promoting healthy coping strategies, such interventions can effectively mitigate the risk of internet addiction among vulnerable youth119,120. In conclusion, this study not only deepens our theoretical understanding of the dynamics between bullying victimization, anxiety, inhibitory control, and internet addiction but also offers actionable insights for stakeholders invested in adolescent welfare. By addressing these complex interrelations, we can better equip young people to navigate the challenges of the digital age with resilience and well-being.

This study reveals the underlying psychological mechanisms between bullying victimization and adolescent internet addiction by considering both emotional and cognitive factors. However, this study still has some limitations. Firstly, this study is based on a cross-sectional design, which may have limitations in explaining causal relationships. Secondly, the data collection method was based on personal subjective responses, which may have limitations in data objectivity. Thirdly, the assessment of bullying victimization was condensed to a single-item measure, a decision driven by the need to minimize the temporal and cognitive burden on participants. While this approach enhances survey efficiency, it sacrifices the granularity required to differentiate among various forms of bullying victimization, thereby limiting the study’s ability to explore the nuances of different bullying experiences. Finally, the study only involved some provinces in China, which may have limitations in sample representativeness. To address these limitations and to enrich future research, we recommend the adoption of longitudinal designs that can capture the evolution of bullying victimization and internet addiction over time. Employing multidimensional data collection methods, such as a combination of quantitative surveys and qualitative interviews, could provide a more comprehensive understanding of the underlying mechanisms. Additionally, expanding the study to include a broader and more diverse range of participants across different regions would enhance the representativeness of the sample. Furthermore, future research should consider incorporating advanced psychometric scales that can more accurately measure the various dimensions of bullying victimization and assess the impact of different bullying modalities on mental health outcomes. The integration of biomarkers, where feasible, may offer additional insights into the physiological correlates of bullying and internet addiction. By adopting these methodological enhancements, subsequent studies will be better positioned to unravel the complex interplay between bullying victimization, internet addiction, and adolescent mental health, leading to more targeted and effective interventions.

Conclusion

This study further reveals the relationship between bullying victimization and adolescent internet addiction by considering the chain mediation effect of anxiety and inhibitory control. The results suggest that anxiety and inhibitory control have a fully chain-mediated effect between bullying victimization and adolescent internet addiction. This study suggests that caregivers should identify adolescent bullying victimization in a timely manner and provide timely support to prevent internet addiction.