Fig. 4 | Scientific Reports

Fig. 4

From: Multi-strategy hybrid adaptive dung beetle optimization for UAV photogrammetric 3D path planning under complex constraints

Fig. 4

Determination of the threat cost. rectangular threat zones (expanded by a safety buffer \({d}_{i}\)) are defined around buildings. For the waypoint set \({d}_{k}\), if a path point enters zone \({d}_{k}\in \left({X}_{i}-{d}_{i},{X}_{i+1}-{d}_{i}\right)\) (extended boundary), penalty R applies; if within \({d}_{k}\in \left({X}_{i},{X}_{i+1}\right)\) (obstacle space), penalty \(\infty\) activates.

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