Fig. 1

The regional annual resistance frequency of Echinochloa in paddy fields to penoxsulam, quinclorac, and metamifop in 13 cities of Jiangsu province from 2018 to 2022. No populations were collected at the following sampling points: Nantong (2018), Suqian (2018, 2022), Taizhou (2020–2022), Xuzhou (2020, 2022), Changzhou(2022), and Yangzhou (2022), so no resistance frequency data was available.