Introduction

Social complexity and the origin of civilization are important topics in current archeological research on the Neolithic period in China (~5000–4000 years ago), a critical period of social complexity in the prehistoric society of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River in China1,2. During this period, the social landscape developed from an egalitarian society in the early period to a stage of class differentiation3. This resulted in a macro-settlement layout of site cluster3,4 and each of these clusters has a city site as the core settlement. Therefore, the middle reaches of the Yangtze River region have the most densely distributed urban agglomeration in China during this period2. Most of these city sites existed for a long time, with frequent social and regional cultural interactions, probably through the possible exchange of people, material, and ideological cultures5,6,7,8. Over time, they merged into a core cultural area with a fixed distribution area, similar cultural qualities, and a continuous development of cultural genes. These issues inform a typical area for exploring the issue of the origins of Chinese civilization and the state.

The issue of social complexity in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River has received little in-depth attention, restricted to ethnic conflicts9, population migration10, and climate environments11,12,13,14,15. However, pottery, as the largest amount of ancient remains unearthed in archeological sites; the form and scale of its production, circulation, and consumption are often regarded as an important reflection of the degree of social complexity16,17,18,19,20. The organization and scale of production, the forms and routes of circulation, and the types and objects of consumption can provide an important basis for understanding the political, economic and cultural conditions of ancient societies17,21,22.

The relationship between pottery artisanship and social change has been relatively explored in other regions of China during the same period, such as the many studies conducted on this topic in Shandong Province. For example, Lu et al.8 found, through an analysis of pottery from a Dawenkou to Longshan culture site in the Rizhao area of Shandong Province, that archeological cultural changes do not directly cause changes in pottery production; furthermore, there was already a small amount of inter-regional mobility of pottery as early as 5000 years ago in the Dawenkou culture period. Druc et al.’s study identified a relatively flexible pottery production pattern during the Longshan culture period, with no evidence of the existence of centralized production centers and strict control of daily pottery production and distribution by social elites23. Similarly, there were no centralized production centers. Moreover, potters used different raw materials and techniques to satisfy the demand for white pottery24; however, small quantities of white pottery products could be exchanged over long distances25. Isotope analyses of whiteware excavated from two important sites in Shandong Province and Anhui Province show that some whiteware was moving across regions as early as 5000 years ago7. A study of different sites in central Henan at this stage found that pottery products were consistently produced locally at all sites, and that interregional pottery circulation was not evident even during the Erlitou culture period, when states and cities were emerging26. By contrast, in the lower reaches of the Yangtze River in a slightly earlier period, the pottery of the Lingjiatan site, which was the center of ritual activities, showed characteristics of decentralized production. However, the Lingjiatan site was able to obtain different types of pottery through different ways because of its special function27, unlike smaller sites. The latest research on Liangzhu culture pottery of the same period found that there might have been use of jade production waste as pottery temper 5000 years ago28. Other archeological studies on Chinese pottery of the same period include analysis of the function of pottery in different regions and exploration of the problem of the relationship between ancient people’s dietary strategies and social development29,30,31. Comparative analysis of pottery artisanship in different periods explores the relationship between pottery production and regional interaction and social change from a technological perspective6,32,33. These studies provide an important basis for understanding the path of civilization in various regions of prehistoric China from different levels.

In the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, cases in which prehistoric pottery was explored at different levels exist, such as Li et al.34, who analyzed the red and colored pottery crafts excavated from the Fenghuangzui city site during the period of 5300–4200 years before the present day, and found that the source of the raw materials for the two types of pottery changed significantly with the cultural changes during the successive development of this site. Xie et al.35 also analyzed pottery production and interactions around the Shijiahe site to identify the commonalities in typical pottery of central and secondary settlements, and also explored the possible reasons for the same typical pottery between central and secondary settlements. Additionally, Li et al. analyzed the pottery used by two families of different classes at the site of Zoumaling (5300–4500 cal BP), and found that there was no significant difference in the acquisition of daily-use pottery by people of different classes; these results provide in-depth understanding of socio-economics after the emergence of the city36. Guo et al. analyzed pottery of different cultural styles from different periods at the Diaolongbei site, which is located on the main transportation route between north and south China, and found that 6300–5300 years ago, there was no change in the production processes and sources of pottery of different cultural styles at the site, and by 5300–4800 years before the present, the origins of pottery of different cultural styles were similar; however, a small amount of foreign pottery appeared, which drove the belief that the site might have been a trading center5. Multidisciplinary studies on the red pigments of painted pottery unearthed from the Longzui site have confirmed that cinnabar and hematite were used as pigments in the production of pottery37. Functional analysis of cooking vessels of the Qujialing culture by Khan et al. found that apart from starch grains from rice and millet, job’s tears (Coix lacryma-jobi), lotus roots (Nelumbo nucifera), tubers possibly from Chinese yam (Dioscorea panthainca), acorns (Quercus sp.), and beans (Vigna sp. or/and Vicia sp.) were consumed by the ancient Qujialing people38. However, these studies have yet to be extended, especially on the question of the relationship between regional economic and cultural interactions mediated by pottery and social complexity. This research focus has yet to be explored at more typical sites, and from more scholarly perspectives.

The Qixingdun site, located at Dongxu Village of Dongshan Town in Huarong County, Hunan Province, is located 130 kilometers south of the Shijiahe city site in Hubei Province. The main structure of the Qixingdun site was a 250,000-square-meter double-layer prehistoric city site, with the external layer having a circular plan and the inner layer being rectangular, the first of its kind discovered in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. The site is also the largest Neolithic archeological site discovered in Hunan thus far39 (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1: Location of Qixingdun site and map of distribution of typical archeological features at the site.
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The map on the left shows the ___location of the Qixingdun site, including the Qixingdun site in the south and the Shijiahe site in the north, as well as the modern cities of Wuhan and Yueyang. The map on the right shows the plan of the Qixingdun site, including the ancient city walls, moats and swamp, etc.

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Throughout the period when the Qixingdun site was in use, particularly during the Shijiahe Culture period, a four-tiered social structure was formed along the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, with the 180-hectare Shijiahe site serving as the center surrounded by nearly 20 middle- and small-sized cities and settlements40. Within 150 square kilometers around the Shijiahe site, 73 settlements coexisted, characterizing this area as one with the highest density of settlement distribution at the middle reaches of the Yangtze River41. Additionally, settlements at different levels maintained consistent house types, tool designs, and sacrificial rituals. The aggregation of these sites is considered closely associated with the emergence and evolution of social complexity in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River2, which provides strong evidence for the study of social integration in an expansive area, and for the exploration of the progress of civilization and prehistoric regional cultural exchange across the middle reaches of the Yangtze River42. The Sanfangwan site is within the Shijiahe walled town, which is located ~130 kilometers north of the Qixingdun site, where archeologists have found over one million red clay cups. Because the Shijiahe walled town, where Sanfangwan was located, was a settlement at the highest level of the settlement hierarchy of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, it has been inferred that these red clay cups might be the results of specialized production, a small portion of which was supplied to the neighboring sites43. This kind of red clay cup has been found at multiple sites in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, including the Qixingdun site, serving as important material for discussing the exchange of material cultures in the area.

Archeological research at the Qixingdun site is scant. A settlement archeological study found that the inner layer of the site was rectangular with round corners. A large area of burnt soil sediments found in the northwest was probably a large area of buildings. The external circle was round in plan, with its southwestern and eastern areas serving as residential areas, and outside the city, there may have been a burial area. Both the inner and external layers were connected with natural waters through water gates. It was likely that shipping facilities, such as docks, also existed in the inner city44. As the oldest city site at the Lianghu Plain, the inner and outer layers of the Qixingdun site were probably constructed simultaneously during the Qujialing Culture period (5500–4500 cal BP). The site reached its prime during the Shijiahe Culture period (4500–4200 cal BP) with an extension to the outer layer and the expansion of the settlement. During the Xiaojiawuji Culture period (4200–1800 cal BP), the ancient site experienced a decline, with the outer city abandoned while the inner city remained in use. After the Xiaojiawuji Culture, the walls of the inner city also became deserted45.

Regarding the macro settlement layout, over 30 small sites were scattered near Dajing Lake, where the Qixingdun site was located, forming a cluster of settlements with Qixingdun serving as a center46.

Regarding its cultural landscape, the Qixingdun site, like the over 20 prehistoric city sites along the middle reaches of the Yangtze River40, encompassed abundant cultural remains from the Qujialing, Shijiahe, and Xiaojiawuji Cultures. So far, over 300 archeological features, including mudbrick walls, burials, kilns, houses, and ash pits, and more than 800 artifacts, including pottery, stone artifacts, wooden wares, and jade wares, have been unearthed from the site46. It is a typical archeological site for discussing regional cultural inheritance and exchange in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River.

Pottery was the most abundant remains uncovered at the Qixingdun site, including pieces of coarse-paste, charcoal-tempered, and fine-paste pottery dated to different periods. The colors of these artifacts varied by period, most being red, gray wares, or black polished wares. Previously, only a preliminary typological analysis of the chronological characteristics of the pottery unearthed at the site45,47 was conducted. During the settlement transformation and the progress of civilization, how did pottery manufacture evolve at the Qixingdun site, located at the southern edge of the middle reaches of the Yangtze River and considered to be under the influence of the same culture? Was there a cross-regional circulation of pottery between the key archeological sites in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River? These questions provide important clues for understanding the details of the social evolution in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River between 5000 and 4000 years ago, and serve as the central topics of this study as well.

To acquire a preliminary understanding of the technical features and provenance of the pottery unearthed at the Qixingdun site and dated to different periods, we selected as many pottery with different cultural characteristics as possible for comparative analyses of chemical composition and petrography. Ninety samples from the Qujialing, Shijiahe, and Xiaojiawuji Cultures were selected (Supplementary Data 1), including five natural clay specimens from the site, which served as a reference for the discussion on the raw materials of the artifacts. Additionally, red clay cups highly resembling those produced at the Sanfangwan site in the Shijiahe city site, a high-level settlement, were also unearthed at the Qixingdun site. To discuss the interaction between Qixingdun and the Shijiahe city site, we also selected seven red clay cup samples from the Sanfangwan site for comparing and analyzing the ceramic wares of different areas. See Table 1: Type and site provenience of the samples.

Table 1 Information of the 90 selected sherds
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Methods

We combined compositional and petrographic analyses to discuss and analyze the technologies used to manufacture the samples and information about their locations of manufacture.

Chemical composition analysis

Each sample for the chemical composition analysis was first ultrasonically cleaned and thoroughly dried in a thermostatic drying box, and then ground in a mortar to a fine powder to achieve as much homogenization of the detection sample as possible, therefore reflecting more accurately the differences in the chemical composition of the pottery6,8,25. A Malvern Panalytical Zetium X-Ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometer was used for analysis using the vacuum mode with an A1/20 filter, a voltage of 30–60 kV, and a current of 60–120 mA. The samples were tested for 11 min. After excluding elements susceptible to intrusion from the environment where the samples were buried, including Ca, S, and P48,49, a statistical analysis of 21 major, minor, and trace elements, including Al2O3, Fe2O3, K2O, MgO, Na2O, SiO2, MnO, TiO2, Ba, Cl, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, Sr, Ti, V, Zn, and Zr, was conducted using JMP. Log transformation for all elements was conducted to normalize the data before conducting principal component analysis of the samples obtained from different sites and dated to varied periods.

Petrographic analysis

The slides used for the petrographic analysis were created by the petrography laboratory of the Geological Museum of China, and the analysis was conducted at Shandong University’s archeological ceramic laboratory. A qualitative analysis was conducted using a Nikon Eclipse 50i POL polarizing microscope, according to the methods proposed by Quinn50 and Stoltman51,52.

Results

General characteristics of the pottery’s composition

As demonstrated in the histogram of the distribution of major elements in Fig. 2, no significant variation overall was identified in the compositional distribution of the pottery unearthed at the Qixingdun site from the Qujialing Culture, Shijiahe Culture, and Xiaojiawuji Culture periods, particularly in the Qujialing and Shijiahe Culture periods, where the composition of coarse-paste, charcoal-tempered, and fine-paste pottery was basically consistent, indicating that the same clay materials might have be used during these periods53.

Fig. 2: Uniform distribution of major elements of pottery unearthed at Qixingdun by type and period.
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The distribution of the main chemical elements of various types of coarse pottery and fine pottery in different periods at the Qixingdun site can be seen in the figure.

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However, compared with samples from the Qujialing and Shijiahe periods, those of the Xiaojiawuji Culture period exhibited larger fluctuations in the distributions of major elements. For example, the SiO2 percentage of the coarse-paste samples from the Xiaojiawuji period was higher. Additionally, the SiO2 percentage of charcoal-tempered pottery was significantly lower, while the Al2O3 percentage was significantly higher. Furthermore, the SiO2 ratio of fine-paste pottery was lower, while the Al2O3 ratio was significantly higher. These findings might reflect a change in pottery raw material sources or the paste recipes used for manufacturing.

The petrographic characteristics of the samples matched the distributional characteristics of chemical composition. Overall, no significant variation was identified in the characteristics of the clay matrices of the sherds across the Qujialing Culture, Shijaihe Culture, and Xiaojiawuji Culture periods. The inclusions in the fine-paste matrices were all silt, with a small amount of dark, round metal nodules observed. The grains were evenly distributed, indicating careful sorting. As shown in Fig. 3a, the pureness of the matrix indicated that the grains might be purposefully sorted and processed. The structures of the clay matrices of the coarse-paste pottery from the three periods were basically consistent, with their inclusions accounting for 30–40%. Generally, the grains were distributed evenly, indicating careful sorting, with large diameter (between 0.8 and 3 mm) and comprising mostly angular grains or rock fragments. The grains were dominated by crushed granite, while also carrying other mineral grains, such as quartz, orthoclase, plagioclase, and microcline, indicating singularity in their source and the existence of added tempers. Of course, one cannot rule out the possibility that the particles are from natural clay (Fig. 3b). In addition to these two types of pottery, charcoal-tempered pottery from different periods was also found at the site. Rhizomes of a single plant species were added to a pure clay matrix. The rhizomes added to the matrix of an individual sample were similar in shape and distributed evenly, and were evidently added tempers (Fig. 3c).

Fig. 3: Petrographic characteristics of typical ceramic sherds obtained at the Qixingdun site.
figure 3

a No. 65—fine-paste pottery; b No. 34—a ceramic sample with crushed granite as a predominant temper; c No. 28—a ceramic sherd with plant stems and leaves as predominant tempers; d No. 64—a ceramic sample from the Xiaojiawuji Culture period, whose predominant tempers were evenly distributed felsic minerals; e No. 69—a sample whose tempers were shreds and strips of fragmented plants; f No. 54—a ceramic sherd whose primary temper was crushed granite containing a high percentage of mafic minerals. More petrographic data regarding this study is provided in Supplementary Fig. 2 to Supplementary Fig. 22.

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Diachronic analysis of the chemical composition

Subsequently, the chemical composition data of ceramic samples dated to the Qujialing, Shijiahe, and Xiaojiawuji periods were analyzed for principal components.

As shown in Figs. 4 and 5, whether for samples of the Qujialing Culture period or the Shijiahe Culture period, coarse-paste and charcoal-tempered pottery differed significantly regarding their chemical composition. The determinants of the difference were the contents of Fe2O3, Cu, Zn, and SiO2. This distinction was maintained throughout the Qujialing Culture and Shijiahe Culture periods, indicating that the technologies of manufacturing different types of pottery were strictly managed and controlled by the potters at the Qixingdun site, which might also represent the inheritance of the technologies employed in specialized pottery manufacture.

Fig. 4: The raw materials of pottery of the Qujialing culture period can be divided into four distinct groups in terms of chemical composition.
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Scatter plots showing principal component analysis of ceramic sherds’ chemical composition: Qujialing Culture period.

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Fig. 5: 5The raw materials of pottery from the Shijiahe culture period can clearly be divided into three groups in terms of chemical element composition.
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Scatter plots showing principal component analysis of ceramic sherds’ chemical composition: Shijiahe Culture period.

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As demonstrated in Fig. 6, the coarse-paste, charcoal-tempered, and fine-paste samples of the Xiaojiawuji Culture period exhibited an overlapping and dispersive distribution, with an absence of centralized distribution of raw materials. This is usually caused by one of two reasons: different processing techniques for the same raw material or the existence of multiple pottery production sites during this period.

Fig. 6: Scatter plots showing principal component analysis of ceramic sherds’ chemical composition: Xiaojiawuji Culture period.
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During the Xiaojiaoyaoji culture period, the raw materials of different types of pottery from the Qixingdun site appear to be confusing in terms of chemical element composition.

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The overall petrographic characteristics of each of the three types of pottery from the Qujialing Culture to the Shijiahe and Xiaojiawuji Culture periods varied insignificantly. However, various types of inclusions were found in the clay matrices of some coarse-paste items, and diverse morphological characteristics were identified in the inclusions of some charcoal-tempered sherds. For instance, the predominant inclusion of the sample demonstrated in Fig. 3d was grains of felsic minerals, which were carefully sorted and evenly distributed. The charcoal-tempered sherd demonstrated in Fig. 3e included plant tempers whose grains were predominantly strip-shaped and smaller than those of the samples dated to the Qujialing and Shijaihe Culture periods. Additionally, although the predominant inclusion of the ceramic sample demonstrated in Fig. 3f was still crushed granite, the percentage of mafic minerals was greater than in the samples of the Qujialing and Shijiahe Culture periods. These features were not observed in the coarse-paste samples from the first two periods. The wider range of compositions and textures characteristics of the pottery from the Xiaojiawuji Culture period corresponds to the distributional characteristics of chemical composition discussed earlier, reflecting a diversity of production locations or technologies.

Analysis of the pottery’s provenance

A principal component analysis of the chemical composition of the ceramic samples uncovered at the Qixingdun site and dated to different periods, as well as the clay samples found around the site, was conducted. Figure 7 presents the results. It was found that the compositional distribution of most ceramic samples of the Qujialing, Shijiahe, and Xiaojiawuji Culture periods basically overlapped with each other, and also partially overlapped with that of the clay samples. This means that the raw materials for pottery manufacture across the three periods basically remained unchanged and probably came from near the site.

Fig. 7: There are similarities in the chemical elemental composition of the pottery from different periods and the clay surrounding the site.
figure 7

Distribution plots of chemical composition of the ceramic samples dated to different periods and nearby clay samples.

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The diachronic petrographic analysis of the coarse-paste sherds discussed earlier demonstrated that, except for some ceramic artifacts whose inclusions exhibited new characteristics during the Xiaojiawuji period, most of the ceramic pieces at the Qixingdun site across different periods maintained consistent inclusion characteristics, indicating a relatively stable tradition in the technologies of pottery manufacture.

Furthermore, recent archeological findings at the site proved the existence of ceramic kilns during the Shijiahe and Xiaojiawuji Culture periods44,45, with some areas exhibiting a tendency of centralized distribution, indicating the presence of local specialized mass pottery manufacture at the Qixingdun site.

As demonstrated in Fig. 8, the natural clay samples collected from near the kilns at the Qixingdun site showed that the same crushed granite grains identified in the coarse-paste pottery unearthed from the site were also present in the site. These grains were similar in size and roundness, suggesting that the potter might have utilized the clay in the vicinity of the kiln for pottery production, or that the clay might have been sieved or decanted, and the coarse fraction of the clay removed, to later be re-injected into the paste. Both practices existed in Shandong Province23.

Fig. 8: Large-grained granite clasts are visible in the figure.
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A clay sample collected from inside the Qixingdun site (QXD-91, cross-polarized light).

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According to a geological map of the surrounding areas of the Qixingdun site, shown in Fig. 9, the site was located in a quaternary accumulation area with abundant clay resources for making fine-paste pottery. Additionally, in the mountain range located just south of the site, granite and monzogranite were widely distributed. These types of rocks were commonly found in the lithic fragments of the pieces of coarse-paste pottery at the Qixingdun site, further proving that the site had the resources required for producing coarse-paste pottery locally.

Fig. 9: Geological map of the surrounding areas of the Qixingdun site.
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Source: Adapted by Qingyu Lu from Ma Lifang. Chinese Geological Atlas. 2002.

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In conclusion, the chemical compositions of the predominant pottery at the Qixingdun site, the types and characteristics of the primary tempers used in coarse-paste pottery, the geological environment and conditions of the surrounding areas, and even the unearthed remains for production activities of different periods, all prove that the main pottery at the site was produced locally from the Qujialing Culture to the Xiaojiawuji Culture period.

Discussion

First, regarding the relationship between pottery production at the Qixingdun site and the evolution of settlement at the site. The time period around 3000 BC was a crucial time in prehistoric social development, during which a cluster of prehistoric cities developed around the ancient city of Shijiahe, a mega settlement, in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Against this background, a double-layer structure characterized by a round external layer and a rectangular inner layer was built with ditches on the external sides of walls and well-developed waterways both inside and outside the city. In around 2500 BC, the ancient city of Qixingdun entered its prime with the occurrence of functional areas within the settlement and artifacts symbolizing status. The external layer of the city was expanded, and more than 30 small settlements developed around the city. In around 2000 BC, dramatic social change happened to the ancient city. Regarding settlement scale, the surrounding settlements vanished, the walls of the external layer of Qixingdun were abandoned, and the external layer was deserted. Based on the excavated cultural artifacts, the ceramic artifacts marked by features of ritual vessels in the previous period basically disappeared, giving way to more coarse-paste red clay wares and stoneware. Regarding archeological features, urn burials, and burial jade wares, both of which were not part of the local tradition, were found, indicating that the abandonment of the site might have been related to the influence of foreign powers45. According to the characteristics of cultural distribution examined from a macro archeological perspective, this stage happened to match the southern expansion of the Longshan Cultures in the Zhongyuan region and Shaanxi54. The Xiaojiawuji Culture was the product of the integration of multiple cultures in the surrounding areas and the late stage of the Shijiahe Culture in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River.

The characteristics of the settlement’s evolution revealed that the Qixingdun site, formed during the Qujialing Culture period, reached its prime in the Shijiahe Culture period, and declined during the Xiaojiawuji Culture period. The diachronic variation in the landscape of the settlement and its cultural characteristics basically matched the features reflected by the pottery at the site. During the Qujialing Culture and Shijiahe Culture periods, the characteristics of the raw materials for pottery manufacture remained unchanged overall. Similar cases marked by stable pottery manufacture in spite of cultural transformation have also been found in other areas in China8,55. In such cases, the transition between the previous and subsequent cultures exhibited strong continuity, and the mainstream of the later culture inherited the style of the previous culture in the area56.

During the Xiaojiawuji Culture period, the prehistoric society of China entered the late stage of Longshan Culture. Regional conflicts, migrations, wars between ethnic groups, and inter-regional cultural integration were prevalent57. During the process of cultural replacement under the influence of a foreign power, it is more common for the foreign power to dominate. Consequently, the replacing archeological culture is more often marked by a sudden change in addition to partially inheriting the local tradition. For instance, a large number of urn burials, burial jade wares, and Zhongyuan-style ceramic wares, which were not part of the local culture, suddenly occurred at the Qixingdun site during the Xiaojiawuji Culture period58, accompanying the decline of the local traditional culture. Regarding ceramic wares of this period, the stable and standard manufacture during the Shijiahe Culture period gave way to diverse raw materials, technologies, and techniques during the Xiaojiawuji Culture period.

In sum, the diachronic variation in pottery manufacture at the Qixingdun site indicates that a natural transition between local archeological cultures rarely influences social production. Contrariwise, the impact of a dominant foreign culture and changes in the local social and political structure are likely to be directly reflected in grassroots social production activities.

Second, regarding the issue of regional cultural interaction as reflected in the special earthenware red clay cups. A large amount of abandoned red clay cups (Fig. 10) were discovered at the Sanfangwan site in the ancient city of Shijiahe, located on the Jianghan Plain. These red clay cups were dated to the Shijiahe Culture period. Based on excavations at the site, there were more than 2 million red clay cups at the site. Stocks on such a large scale indicated that these cups were not produced for the self-sufficient purposes of the site. Therefore, the archeological community currently regards Sanfangwan as a red clay cup manufacturing and supply center in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River during the Shijiahe Culture period43. Additionally, red clay cups were also discovered across multiple large archeological sites dated to the same period and located in the middle reaches of the Yangtze River, indicating possible contemporary exchange of such products. Xie et al. applies microscopic examination and chemical and mineralogical analyses to the red clay cups found near the Shijiahe city site35. Owing to the short distance between the two archeological sites, similar geographical environment, and limited precision of the equipment used for analysis, they made the tentative conclusion that the cups were locally produced. However, the straight-line distance between the Qixingdun and Shijiahe sites is 130 kilometers. Considering the distinct geographical environments of the two sites, the Qixingdun site is a good case for discussing the circulation of red clay cups between the two sites.

Fig. 10: Red clay cups unearthed at the Sanfangwan site in the Shijiahe city site.
figure 10

Notes: (① & ②: Sediments of red clay cups at an area in the site; ③: red clay cups. Source: This figure was edited based on Figures 27, 28, and 34 in “The Excavation of the Sanfangwan Site in the Shijiahe Ancient City Site in Tianmen City, Hubei in 2016” by Hubei Provincial Institute of Cultural Relics and Archaeology, School of Archaeology and Museology, Peking University, and Tianmen Museum, published in the 9th issue of kaogu (Archaeology) in 2018).

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To further validate our speculation, we selected several elements considered important in the analysis of the provenance of ceramic wares8,35,59,60,61. As shown in the scatterplot matrix in Fig. 11, the red cups from the Qixingdun and Sanfangwan sites are co-centralized in a limited area in the scatterplot, suggesting a similar chemical composition, and from the chemical composition point of view again verifies the speculation that the red cups excavated from the Qixingdun site came from the same source as the red cups produced by the manufacturing center in Sanfangwan, which is 130 kilometers away. Additionally, according to the petrographic sections of the red cups from the Qixingdun and Sanfangwan sites, as demonstrated in Fig. 12, the red cups from both sites were made from silty clay. Moreover, the clay matrices contained a large number of metal-oxide grains of similar sizes, reflecting kindred raw materials and techniques in the red cups from both sites.

Fig. 11: Biplots of Al2O3, K2O, Cr, Ni, and Zn.
figure 11

The figure covers the Shijiahe-period pottery from the Qixingdun site and 7 hong tao bei from Sanfangwan and the analysis results are consistent with the principal component analysis results in Supplementary Fig. 1.

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Fig. 12: Petrographic sections of red cups collected at Qixingdun and Sanfantwan sites.
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1 No.76 red cup from the Qixingdun site; 2 No. 80 red cup from the Sanfangwan site.

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Given that the red cups from the Qixingdun and Sanfangwan sites had similar raw materials, we can also see from Fig. 11 that a red cup from Qixingdun, identified as No. 77, and one from Sanfangwan, marked as No. 84, exhibited characteristics as outliers in the contents of some elements. This finding indicates that, despite the mass production of red cups, internal variation was relatively present in the raw materials owing to the time the potters took the clay, the ___location where it was taken, and the depth from which it was taken.

The period between 5000 and 4000 years ago entailed significant change in the prehistoric social development of China, during which productivity growth and the occurrence of surplus products contributed to widening gaps between different social classes, and led to more frequent inter-regional exchange of people, materials, and culture. As the most abundant type of handicraft in the prehistoric era, pottery was supposed to be a carrier for social exchange and interaction. However, because there were abundant raw materials suitable for making pottery across China, the ceramic artifacts found at most archeological sites were manufactured nearby5,8,60,61. Only artifacts symbolizing identity, status, and wealth could be transported to other regions7,8,60,61. For instance, painted pottery dous (stem cups) from the middle reaches of the Yangtze River were transported over a long distance to regions north of the Huai River60, and pieces of the precious white pottery were circulated between eastern and western Shandong Province61. Like these ceramic wares that circulated over long distances, the red cups at the Qixingdun site occurred at large settlements of the same period. Additionally, except for Sanfangwan, the manufacturing center in the Shijiahe city site, only a small number of red cups were found at the other archeological sites, indicating that this type of red cup, similar to the luxury pottery of other areas, had special symbolic meanings across the middle reaches of the Yangtze River during the Shijiahe Culture period35. It was likely that the ancient city of Shijiahe, as the largest central settlement during the period, capitalized on some objects, such as the red cups, or the culture and philosophy that such objects carried to maintain its administration or control over the over 20 middle- and small-sized city sites across the middle reaches of the Yangtze River. Of course, in future, evidence from multiple aspects will be required to validate the relationships between the city sites of the cluster centered around the Shijiahe city site.