Fig. 4: Activity and stability of HEA/c-PdSn and the origin of high performance for EOR.

a, b CV curves and mass activities at different potentials of HEA/c-PdSn, HEA, PdSn, FeCoNi, and commercial Pd/C (tested in the Ar-saturated aqueous solution containing 1.0 M KOH and 1.0 M EtOH at a scan rate of 20 mV s⁻¹). c Performance comparison of HEA/c-PdSn with other reported catalysts in terms of mass activity at their corresponding peaks. d Free energy profiles of FeCoNi, PdSn, and HEA/c-PdSn in the EOR process including dehydrogenation, C-C bond breaking, and oxidation. PDS potential determined steps in DFT calculation. The optimized computational models are provided in Supplementary Data 1. e The maximal reaction energy of FeCoNi, PdSn, and HEA/c-PdSn in the EOR process based on DFT calculations. f The reaction energies of specific-intermediate (C-C bond, *CH oxidation) on FeCoNi, PdSn, and HEA/c-PdSn surface in the EOR process based on DFT calculations. g CV curves of HEA/c-PdSn at the initial and 2000^th cycles. h CO stripping curves of HEA/c-PdSn, PdSn alloy, and commercial Pd/C. i Temperature programmed reduction spectra of HEA and HEA/c-PdSn. Source data are provided as a Source Data file.