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Hybrid epoxy–acrylate resins for wavelength-selective multimaterial 3D printing

Nature Materials volume 24, pages 1116–1125 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Structures in nature combine hard and soft materials in precise three-dimensional (3D) arrangements, imbuing bulk properties and functionalities that remain elusive to mimic synthetically. However, the potential for biomimetic analogues to seamlessly interface hard materials with soft interfaces has driven the demand for innovative chemistries and manufacturing approaches. Here, we report a liquid resin for rapid, high-resolution digital light processing (DLP) 3D printing of multimaterial objects with an unprecedented combination of strength, elasticity and resistance to ageing. A covalently bound hybrid epoxy–acrylate monomer precludes plasticization of soft domains, while a wavelength-selective photosensitizer accelerates cationic curing of hard domains. Using dual projection for multicolour DLP 3D printing, bioinspired metamaterial structures are fabricated, including hard springs embedded in a soft cylinder to adjust compressive behaviour and a detailed knee joint featuring ‘bones’ and ‘ligaments’ for smooth motion. Finally, a proof-of-concept device demonstrates selective stretching for electronics.

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Fig. 1: Comparison of past and present multimaterial 3D printing strategies.
Fig. 2: Resin components and wavelength-selective curing for multimaterial fabrication.
Fig. 3: Colour-controlled DLP 3D printing and thermomechanical characterization of test bars.
Fig. 4: Resolution and mechanical characterization of 3D-printed multimaterial objects.
Fig. 5: Multimaterial 3D printing of bioinspired mechanical metamaterials.
Fig. 6: Local deformation in multimaterial tensile specimens and application in a stretchable electronic device.

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Data availability

The data supporting the findings of this study are available within the Article and Supplementary Information. Raw data files in other formats are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Source data are provided with this paper.

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Acknowledgements

We acknowledge primary support from the Department of Defense under grant W911NF2210115 (J.-W.K., M.J.A., E.A.R., L.M.S., H.L.C., A.U., Z.A.P.; compositional, optical, mechanical and thermal characterization, and materials and supplies). Partial support was provided by the Robert A. Welch Foundation under grants F-2007 (J.-W.K., A.U., Z.A.P.; synthesis) and F-2210 (A.J.A., G.E.S.; digital image correlation and rheology), National Science Foundation (NSF) Directorate for Engineering under grant 2229036 (A.G., W.E., M.A.C.; FEA and electronic device fabrication and testing), US Department of Energy, Office of Science, Basic Energy Sciences through the Center for Materials for Water and Energy Systems (M-WET), an Energy Frontier Research Center under award DE-SC0019272 (M.J.A., B.D.F.; nanoindentation characterization), NSF Graduate Research Fellowship under grant DGE-1610403 (M.J.A.) and Research Corporation for Science Advancement under award 28184 (Z.A.P.). The authors thank J. Rawlins at the University of Southern Mississippi for discussions on standardized aging conditions.

Author information

Author notes

  1. These authors contributed equally: Ji-Won Kim, Marshall J. Allen.

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Ji-Won Kim, Marshall J. Allen, Lynn M. Stevens, Henry L. Cater, Ain Uddin & Zachariah A. Page

  2. McKetta Department of Chemical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Marshall J. Allen, Elizabeth A. Recker, Anthony J. Arrowood, Gabriel E. Sanoja, Benny D. Freeman & Zachariah A. Page

  3. Walker Department of Mechanical Engineering, The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Ang Gao, Wyatt Eckstrom & Michael A. Cullinan

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Contributions

Conceptualization, J.-W.K., M.J.A., Z.A.P.; methodology, J.-W.K., M.J.A., E.A.R., L.M.S., H.L.C., A.U., A.G., W.E., A.J.A.; investigation, J.-W.K., M.J.A., E.A.R., L.M.S., H.L.C., A.U., A.G., W.E., A.J.A.; visualization, J.-W.K., M.J.A., E.A.R., Z.A.P.; funding acquisition, G.E.S., M.A.C., B.D.F., Z.A.P.; project administration, Z.A.P.; supervision, G.E.S., M.A.C., B.D.F., Z.A.P.; writing—original draft, J.-W.K., M.J.A., Z.A.P.; writing—review and editing, J.-W.K., M.J.A., E.A.R., L.M.S., H.L.C., A.U., A.G., W.E., A.J.A., G.E.S., M.A.C., B.D.F., Z.A.P.

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Zachariah A. Page.

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Competing interests

Z.A.P., M.J.A. and J.-W.K. have filed an international patent (application no. PCT/US2024/035169) related to this work. The other authors declare no competing interests.

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Nature Materials thanks Thomas Wallin and the other, anonymous, reviewer(s) for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Supplementary information

Supplementary Information

Supplementary Experimental Methods, Characterization, Figs. 1–83, Tables 1–21, Schemes 1 and 2 and Videos 1–15.

Supplementary Video 1

Uniaxial compression of a ‘soft cylinder (no spring)’ structure at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 50 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Fig. 5a and Supplementary Fig. 62.

Supplementary Video 2

Uniaxial compression of a ‘concentric twisted’ structure containing a hard spring (0.9-mm diameter, 4-mm pitch) within a soft cylinder at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 50 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Fig. 5a and Supplementary Fig. 62.

Supplementary Video 3

Uniaxial compression of a ‘concentric twisted’ structure containing a hard spring (0.9-mm diameter, 3-mm pitch) within a soft cylinder at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 50 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Fig. 5a and Supplementary Fig. 62.

Supplementary Video 4

Uniaxial compression of a ‘concentric twisted’ structure containing a hard spring (0.9-mm diameter, 2-mm pitch) within a soft cylinder at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 50 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Fig. 5a and Supplementary Fig. 62.

Supplementary Video 5

Uniaxial compression of a ‘hard spring (no cylinder)’ structure (0.9-mm diameter, 3-mm pitch) at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 0.5 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Fig. 5a inset.

Supplementary Video 6

Uniaxial compression of a ‘concentric twisted’ structure containing a hard spring (0.5-mm diameter, 4-mm pitch) within a soft cylinder at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 50 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Supplementary Fig. 63.

Supplementary Video 7

Uniaxial compression of a ‘concentric twisted’ structure containing a hard spring (0.5-mm diameter, 3-mm pitch) within a soft cylinder at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 50 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Supplementary Fig. 63.

Supplementary Video 8

Uniaxial compression of a ‘concentric twisted’ structure containing a hard spring (0.5-mm diameter, 2-mm pitch) within a soft cylinder at a compression rate of 10 µm min−1 until 50 N was reached. The video is played back at 30× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Supplementary Fig. 63.

Supplementary Video 9

Manual unidirectional bending and recovery of a ‘knee joint’ structure over four cycles followed by the removal of force. The video is played back at 2× speed. Details of 3D structure can be found in Fig. 5b and Supplementary Figs. 66 and 67.

Supplementary Video 10

Uniaxial stretching of a ‘brick-and-mortar’ structure at a strain rate of 10 mm min−1 until macroscopic failure. The video is played back at 2× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Supplementary Figs. 68 and 69.

Supplementary Video 11

DIC for the ‘1,000× modulus central insert’ sample, showing the localized strain distribution under cyclic stretching to a global strain of 30% at a tensile rate of 5 mm min−1. The samples were spray-coated to facilitate DIC analysis. The video is played back at 60× speed.

Supplementary Video 12

DIC for the ‘100× modulus central insert’ sample, showing the localized strain distribution under cyclic stretching to a global strain of 30% at a tensile rate of 5 mm min−1. The samples were spray-coated to facilitate DIC analysis. The video is played back at 60× speed.

Supplementary Video 13

DIC for the ‘10× modulus central insert’ sample, showing the localized strain distribution under cyclic stretching to a global strain of 30% at a tensile rate of 5 mm min−1. The samples were spray-coated to facilitate DIC analysis. The video is played back at 60× speed.

Supplementary Video 14

Uniaxial stretching of a ‘multimaterial device with 1× insert’ structure bearing a white LED at a tensile rate of 5 mm min−1, with global strain reaching 30% over 10 repeated cycles. The video is played back at 60× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Fig. 6d.

Supplementary Video 15

Uniaxial stretching of a ‘multimaterial device with 1,000× insert’ structure bearing a white LED at a tensile rate of 5 mm min−1, with global strain reaching 30% over 10 repeated cycles. The video is played back at 60× speed. Details of the 3D structure can be found in Fig. 6d of the main manuscript.

Source data

Source Data Fig. 1

Statistical source data for Fig. 1c.

Source Data Fig. 2

Statistical source data for Fig. 2b–d.

Source Data Fig. 3

Statistical source data for Fig. 3b–d.

Source Data Fig. 4

Statistical source data for Fig. 4b–d.

Source Data Fig. 5

Statistical source data for Fig. 5a.

Source Data Fig. 6

Statistical source data for Fig. 6b,c.

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Kim, JW., Allen, M.J., Recker, E.A. et al. Hybrid epoxy–acrylate resins for wavelength-selective multimaterial 3D printing. Nat. Mater. 24, 1116–1125 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41563-025-02249-z

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