Introduction

The rapid proliferation of marathon events has intensified competition among races, highlighting the importance of creating distinctive branded events to attract participants. Historically, branding strategies for marathons have primarily focused on sporting elements that are often similar across events, leading to homogenization and potentially diminishing their appeal. Traditional research has concentrated on logistical factors, such as venue environment, event atmosphere, and organizational support, which are essential prerequisites for event image and participant satisfaction. Foundational studies by Gwinner (2009) and Huang (2020)1,2 have explored how these factors shape participants’ overall perceptions of events. However, less attention has been paid to how broader city image and specific branded elements associated with the event act as antecedents to perceived event image. As a flagship event of its host city3, a marathon integrates unique cultural elements that influence not only participants’ perceptions of the event but also their perceptions of the city itself4. City functions, governance, and distinctive characteristics5,6,7,8,9,10 can significantly impact how marathon participants perceive branded events.

Focusing on these antecedents is crucial as they have the potential to enhance the attractiveness of marathon events and the effectiveness of city promotion. This focus is increasingly important in an era where city image and the success of branded events are intertwined, influencing participants’ choices and satisfaction. The novelty of this study lies in its dual emphasis on both city image—including city functions, governance, and unique characteristics—and the specific content of branded events, such as event culture and services. This approach is grounded in the hypothesis that these broader and more nuanced antecedents offer deeper insights into the mechanisms by which participants form perceptions of both city image and branded marathon events.

This research aims to address existing gaps by empirically examining how city image and specific branded elements influence marathon participants’ perceptions. By incorporating a comprehensive set of variables that encompass both city characteristics and event-specific elements, this study seeks to provide a richer, more holistic understanding of the drivers of participant perceptions and offers strategic insights into how these perceptions can be managed to enhance the brand image of marathon events.

Literature review and research hypotheses

Theory of perception

Perception theory in psychology offers a robust framework for understanding how individuals form brand associations based on their experiential interactions with their social and physical environments. According to Holbrook (1999), experiential interactions significantly influence consumers’ perceived value, highlighting that environmental factors can alter perception11. In the context of sports events, particularly marathons, the experiences are not solely influenced by the event but also by the host city’s environment. Girish (2019) and Zhang et al. (2020) emphasize that experiential dimensions—such as spatial immersion and sensory experience—play a crucial role in shaping participants’ perceptions of branded marathon events12,13,14. However, existing literature tends to focus primarily on logistical aspects of the event environment, often neglecting the broader urban context that also shapes perceptions. This study builds on and extends previous work by integrating both the event-specific and city-level factors that contribute to the perception of branded marathon events.

Theory of city image

City image theory involves a multifaceted concept that includes elements such as government functions, economic status, natural ecology, public facilities, and cultural heritage, all contributing to the overall impression left on visitors14,15 The image of the host city is particularly critical in the context of branded marathon events, where participants’ perceptions are shaped not only by the race but also by the city’s unique characteristics. Richelieu (2018) defines city image as the cumulative sum of these subjective perceptions, which are essential for understanding how participants engage with the event environment16. Previous studies, such as those by Myint (2005), have highlighted how large-scale sports events, including marathons, can reshape a city’s perceived image, enhancing views on its planning, governance, and cultural vibrancy17. However, less is known about how these city characteristics directly influence brand perceptions of the event itself.

City functions

City functions, encompassing aspects such as transportation, public safety, healthcare, and recreational facilities, are foundational to city administration. Vailaya et al. (1998) found that the quality of a city’s infrastructure and services has a direct impact on participants’ satisfaction and perceptions of the brand image of events18. Given that marathons utilize urban spaces as their primary venue, the success of these events is heavily dependent on the city’s capacity to manage access, hospitality, and urban aesthetics19. This study emphasizes city functions as a critical research variable due to their direct impact on the organization and execution of marathon events. Effective City functions not only facilitate the seamless operation of large-scale sports events but also play a pivotal role in ensuring participant safety and satisfaction20. Enhanced city functions can elevate participant experiences, thereby amplifying the event’s attractiveness and brand image, which, in turn, can attract more participants and audiences. Thus, we propose Hypothesis 1:

H1: City functions significantly influence participants’ perceptions of branded marathon events.

City governance

City governance encompasses the city’s administrative structure, policy formulation, enforcement, and crisis management capabilities. Effective governance is essential for the successful hosting of major events, as it reflects the city’s organizational efficiency and resilience21. Maenning et al. (2009) argue that high-quality city governance can increase the appeal of large events and positively impact brand perception. This is crucial, especially when unexpected challenges arise during event execution. Previous studies have underscored the importance of public–private partnerships in city governance, where collaborative governance among government entities, communities, and businesses enhances the overall event experience22. By focusing on city governance, this study seeks to examine how the administrative effectiveness of the city influences participants’ perceptions of branded events, providing insights into the broader implications of urban policy on event success. Thus, we propose Hypothesis 2:

H2: City governance significantly influences participants’ perceptions of branded marathon events.

City characteristics

City characteristics refer to the unique cultural, historical, and physical attributes that distinguish one city from another. These characteristics play a critical role in enhancing the branded experience of marathon events, offering participants a deeper cultural and emotional connection to the host city23. Zhang (2016) found that distinctive urban elements, such as historical landmarks, local traditions, and scenic views, significantly influence how participants perceive the brand image of events24. The incorporation of unique city characteristics into the marathon experience creates a distinctive brand identity, setting the event apart from others. This study highlights city characteristics as a crucial variable due to their role in transforming a sports event into a cultural experience, thereby enhancing participants’ emotional engagement and overall satisfaction. Thus, we propose Hypothesis 3:

H3: City characteristics significantly influence participants’ perceptions of branded marathon events.

In sum, these three variables—city functions, governance, and characteristics—interact in complex ways to shape the overall perception of branded marathon events. Each element contributes uniquely: City functions ensure infrastructure and service adequacy; City governance guarantees operational efficiency and safety; and City characteristics infuse the event with cultural and emotional value. Together, they create a comprehensive framework for understanding the factors that drive participant perceptions and contribute to the overall brand success of marathon events.

Theory of component elements of event branding

The theory of brand event components posits that brands are constituted by essential elements, including functional aspects such as service quality, technical features, and symbolic aspects like cultural heritage and reputation. In the context of sports events, branding is uniquely influenced by these components due to the event-specific nature of sports. Brand event theory traditionally identifies three primary components: brand symbols, culture, and products25.

Event culture

Event culture comprises the values, traditions, rituals, and celebrations that define the unique identity of a marathon. These cultural elements are pivotal in shaping the brand identity of the event, offering participants an opportunity to connect on an emotional level. The deep-rooted cultural interactions—through ceremonies, traditional activities, and symbolic elements—allow participants to experience the deeper meanings associated with the event, significantly enhancing their loyalty and positive perceptions of the brand25. Moreover, Huang et al. (2022) found that cultural elements such as themes and slogans are effective in conveying brand image and strengthening public recognition of the event1. Thus, we propose Hypothesis 4:

H4: Event culture significantly influences participants’ perceptions of branded marathon events.

Event services

Event services encompass all aspects of the practical service experience, including pre-race information, on-site logistical support, and post-race recovery services. Service quality is a critical determinant of participant satisfaction and overall event perception. Parasuraman (1988) proposed that service quality directly impacts consumer perceptions of brand value, emphasizing the need for event organizers to deliver services that meet or exceed participant expectations26. Zhang et al. (2016) also noted that high-quality service experiences are crucial in shaping repeat participation intentions, thereby influencing the sustained appeal of branded events28. The emphasis on event services in this study highlights their critical role in shaping brand perceptions through the delivery of care, professionalism, and excellence in service. Thus, we propose Hypothesis 5:

H5: Event services significantly influence participants’ perceptions of branded marathon events.

In conclusion, this study’s selection of event culture and services as research variables underscores their direct impact on participant interaction and service experience—key factors in fostering brand loyalty and enhancing brand image. By optimizing event culture and service quality, organizers can significantly enhance the event’s appeal and competitiveness, as supported by extensive theoretical and empirical evidence.

Study population and data collection

This study investigated the factors influencing the perception of marathon brand events among the target population of marathon participants. Through a thorough literature review, a survey questionnaire was meticulously designed. The recruitment of survey personnel and data collection took place from 9:00 AM to 12:00 PM on November 13, 2022.

It is important to note that this survey was conducted as a sampling survey of the general population and did not involve any medical experimentation on human subjects. The survey activities received approval from the event organizing committee, and the questionnaires were filled out by participants on-site after obtaining their consent. The data collected from the respondents did not include any personal information and was gathered in an anonymous manner. Participants were invited to complete the questionnaire based on their subjective perceptions of participating in the event. On the day of the event, paper questionnaires were randomly distributed to participants in different categories at various locations, including the post-race rest area, post-race material access area, and sponsor activity area. A total of 450 questionnaires were distributed, with 250, 100, and 100 questionnaires sent to each respective area. All distributed questionnaires were collected, and 422 valid questionnaires were entered, resulting in an effective response rate of 93.7%. According to Table 1, the sample consisted of approximately three males for every one female participant, with a majority of participants being recreational runners. Furthermore, over half of the participants were residents of Xiamen city.

Table 1 Summary of the structure of the survey sample.
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Research methodology

This study used a questionnaire method and mathematical statistics, and Spss29.0 and Amos26.0 were chosen to analyze the sample data. The research methods were conducted in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Specific analysis methods included: Firstly, testing the reliability and validity of the sample data to examine the data’s reliability and applicability. Secondly, using the maximum variance method to rotate and extract common factors and establish a perception evaluation scale for marathon participants’ perception of event image and city image. Finally, a structural model of the scale was constructed, and confirmatory factor analysis was used to assess data fit, test the structural model and research hypotheses, and conduct analysis. This social questionnaire survey obtained approval from the Ethics Committee of Jimei University, and informed consent was obtained from all the participants.

Scale reliability and validity tests

Exploratory factor analysis

Reliability testing was conducted using SPSS 29.0 to assess the reliability and suitability of the sample data. The KMO (Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin) measure of sampling adequacy was 0.813, which is above the threshold of 0.8, indicating that the perception scale is appropriate for exploratory factor analysis. Bartlett’s test of sphericity yielded an approximate chi-square value of 11,728.872 with 351 degrees of freedom and a p-value less than 0.000, which is below 0.01, meeting the requirements for factor analysis (Table 2).

Table 2 KMO and Bartlett’s test results.
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Using the maximum variance method for factor rotation and retaining indicators with absolute values greater than 0.5, five factors were extracted after rotation. Two items, personalized exclusive services (0.356) and event information transmission (0.463), were excluded, resulting in a total of 27 indicators. The five factors were named as follows: City functions (X1 ~ X6), City governance (X7 ~ X10), City characteristics (X11 ~ X14), Event Culture (X15 ~ X18), and Event Services (X19 ~ X27), as shown in Table 2.

The Cronbach’s α reliability coefficients for all factors exceeded the statistical standard value of 0.7, indicating good reliability of the scale and measurement dimensions used in this study. The cumulative variance contribution rate of the five factors was 75.42%, suggesting that the constructed perception scale of branded marathon events for participants is acceptable (Table 3).

Table 3 Model reliability and validity tests and means.
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Validation factor analysis

Data processing for validity testing was conducted using Amos 26.0, with the criteria for assessment set as factor loadings greater than 0.5, composite reliability (CR) greater than 0.6, and average variance extracted (AVE) greater than 0.5. As shown in Table 3, the factor loadings of the indicators in the questionnaire ranged from 0.522 to 1, composite reliability values ranged from 0.901 to 0.947, and the average variance extracted ranged from 0.606 to 0.819. All three indicators meet the established standards, indicating a good convergence validity of the internal quality of the model.

Next, the sample data were embedded into the structural model for fit verification. The results indicated that the perception model was successfully identified, and the fit indices of the structural model for the five perception dimensions were as follows: SRMR = 0.0602, X2/DF = 4.604, NFI = 0.882, IFI = 0.865, CFI = 0.904, PNFI = 0.776, all meeting statistical requirements. Although RMSEA did not fully meet the recommended threshold, the values were very close, ranging between 0.08 and 0.10, suggesting an acceptable model fit30 Therefore, the perception structure model constructed in this study demonstrates good model fit, with all indices meeting the basic requirements for research in the social sciences, as shown in Table 4.

Table 4 List of indicators for fitting the marathon participants’ perceptual structural models.
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After hypothesis testing, the standardized path coefficients of the latent variables—functions, City governance, City characteristics, Event Culture, and Event Services—were 0.075, 0.082, 0.085, 0.100, and 0.072, respectively. On this basis, it was found that positive correlations exist between all five latent variables, with P-values all less than 0.001, passing the 1% significance level test. Consequently, the research hypotheses H1, H2, H3, H4, and H5 are all supported.

Results and discussion

Discussion on the impact of city image elements on participants’ perceptions from a macroscopic perspective

(1) City functions as a fundamental condition for perceived brand events

City functions have been identified as a critical foundation influencing the perception of branded marathon events. In the 2022 Xiamen International Marathon, enhancements in city infrastructure, support for cultural activities, and sports development policies significantly boosted the event’s attractiveness and brand value. These findings align with Kaplanidou et al. (2012), who emphasized the close relationship between urban infrastructure and sports branding4. This study further substantiates the pivotal role of city functions in supporting marathon events, demonstrating that aspects such as the completeness of sports facilities, the richness of cultural activities, and governmental support significantly influence perceptions of branded marathon events. Specifically, perceptions of supporting activities (mean = 3.71) and event capacity (mean = 3.49) were highly rated within city functions, highlighting the direct impact of governmental investment in sports infrastructure and event support. This finding aligns with Voogd (1987), who argued that the quality and accessibility of sports facilities are key drivers of event participation13. The standardized path coefficient of city functions was 0.075, with model fit indices (CFI = 0.904, RMSEA = 0.092) showing a good overall fit, suggesting a positive effect of city functions on brand event perception. These results underline the importance of city functions in enhancing participant satisfaction, engagement, and brand loyalty through improved auxiliary activities and experiences.

(2) City governance as a key factor in shaping positive perceptions of brand events and city image

Efficient governance, encompassing event organization, environmental management, and health standards, has been shown to be crucial in shaping positive perceptions of branded events and the broader city image. High ratings for environmental governance (mean = 3.78) and smooth event order (mean = 3.74) underscore the role of effective governance in enhancing overall event quality. This finding supports Meanning and Du Plessis (2007), who noted that high-quality event environments and smooth participation experiences significantly increase event attractiveness22. The path coefficient for city governance was 0.082, underscoring its significant impact on brand perception, particularly in areas such as effective pandemic control (perception score = 3.69). This demonstrates how sound city governance not only safeguards participant health and safety but also enhances the overall brand perception of the event.

These insights reveal that beyond basic organizational efficiency, nuanced aspects of city governance—such as adaptive crisis management and community engagement—can elevate the perceived professionalism and safety of branded events. Our findings, consistent with Gwinner et al. (2009), suggest that effective governance practices are integral to establishing a secure and professional event image2.

(3) City characteristics as a key element in shaping the uniqueness of branded events

City characteristics, including landmarks, cultural elements, and local products, play a crucial role in differentiating branded marathon events by providing a unique context and setting. Participants’ perceptions of cultural landmarks, tourist attractions, and regional specialties significantly enrich their connection to the event and foster deeper emotional bonds. This finding aligns with Myint and Lam (2005) and Wang (2022), who highlighted that participants’ immersive engagement with the urban environment leads to a deeper, more reflective internalization of the event experience17,23. In our study, urban tourism characteristics (mean = 3.56) and traditional culture (mean = 3.57) received high ratings, demonstrating the value participants place on elements that reflect the city’s uniqueness. Additionally, event services closely tied to regional characteristics, such as local food offerings, also received positive feedback, supporting Kaplanidou et al. (2012)’s assertion that the integration of local culture can significantly enhance event brand value and deepen emotional connections with participants4. The path coefficient for city characteristics was 0.085, marking it as one of the most influential factors in the model.

This study uniquely contributes to the understanding of how city characteristics shape brand perception by demonstrating the critical role of cultural and tourism elements in creating a distinctive and memorable marathon experience. This integration not only strengthens participant identification with the event but also differentiates it from other city marathons.

Discussion on the impact of brand event elements on participants’ perceptions from a micro perspective

Event culture and services are pivotal in shaping the perception of branded marathon events, playing a decisive role in participants’ overall satisfaction and loyalty. The cultural values, spirit, and reputation of the event, along with high-quality services—such as safety measures, supply provision, and volunteer support—directly influence how participants perceive and engage with the event. High-quality execution of event services, particularly in areas like post-race support and supply provision, is seen by participants as a direct reflection of the event’s organizational competence, significantly enhancing the brand image of the marathon. This aligns with the findings of Girish and Lee (2019), who highlighted that service quality directly impacts perceptions and loyalty toward branded events13.

The data show that perceptions related to event culture, including event spirit (mean = 4.43) and event reputation (mean = 4.44), received the highest scores among all measured items, indicating the profound influence of cultural values and social recognition on participants’ perceptions. This highlights how the emotional and symbolic aspects of the event resonate deeply with participants, contributing significantly to their overall brand perception. Moreover, high-quality event services, particularly in medical support (mean = 4.00) and volunteer services (mean = 3.95), reflect the professionalism of the event organization and directly enhance participant satisfaction.

These results underscore the critical influence of both tangible and intangible event elements. For example, the prominence of event spirit and reputation in shaping perceptions suggests that participants are not only influenced by the logistical aspects of the event but also by its cultural narrative and social resonance. The findings emphasize the need for event organizers to invest in cultivating a strong cultural identity for the event, which can act as a key differentiator in a competitive landscape. Furthermore, the provision of high-standard services, such as comprehensive medical support and well-organized volunteer assistance, directly correlates with positive perceptions of the event’s safety and professionalism, reinforcing participants’ trust and loyalty to the brand.

The standardized path coefficients from the structural equation model further validate these findings, with event culture and service quality showing path coefficients of 0.100 and 0.072, respectively. The notably higher impact of event culture highlights its role as a defining factor in creating strong brand perceptions. This suggests that while service quality remains crucial, the unique cultural elements of the event are particularly effective in building emotional connections and enhancing participant loyalty.

The differentiated impact of various service types also warrants attention. For instance, the significant scores for medical support and volunteer services suggest that participants place high value on aspects of the event that directly affect their safety and comfort. This points to an opportunity for event organizers to further enhance brand perception by focusing on refining these specific service areas, ensuring that they meet or exceed participant expectations.

In conclusion, the findings reveal that both the cultural and service aspects of branded marathon events are instrumental in shaping participants’ perceptions. For event organizers, the strategic enhancement of these elements can lead to a more compelling event experience that fosters stronger brand loyalty and differentiation. Practical implications include developing narratives that highlight the event’s cultural significance, enhancing the quality of participant interactions, and ensuring that service delivery reflects the highest standards of professionalism. These strategies not only enhance immediate participant satisfaction but also contribute to the long-term success and recognition of the event as a distinguished brand in the marathon landscape.

Based on the empirical research results and analysis mentioned above, the framework path diagram depicted in Fig. 1 is summarized and inferred, providing empirical evidence for the construction of the participants’ perception mechanism of the competitive event brand. This framework diagram revolves around marathon participants and examines whether the selection of city and event perception dimensions and specific perceptual content aligns with the actual needs of the perceiving subjects. The results indicate that the composition of the event brand image encompasses three aspects: city image, event brand elements, and subjective perception. In the complex interactions among different stakeholders, the development of the event brand gains significance through continuous updates.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Research framework for marathon participants’ tournament brand perception.

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Conclusions and implications

This study provides important insights into the impact of host cities and event branding on marathon participants’ perceptions, offering both theoretical and practical contributions. The research reveals how city functions, governance, and unique characteristics fundamentally shape participants’ experiences, expanding existing knowledge on the integration of urban development and branded sports events.

Theoretical contributions

This study integrates urban dynamics with event branding, presenting a novel framework that emphasizes the symbiotic relationship between cities and branded marathon events. The findings confirm that city functions serve as foundational elements, city governance significantly influences perceptions, and city characteristics are decisive factors, providing a comprehensive understanding of how city image impacts participants’ perceptions.

Practical implications

  1. 1.

    Optimizing City Functions: Effective city functions, such as infrastructure, public services, and logistical support, are crucial for enhancing the marathon experience. Investing in robust transportation systems, accessible sports facilities, and well-managed public spaces directly contributes to positive participant perceptions. Cities should continually assess and improve these functions to ensure they meet the needs of large-scale events, which in turn can elevate the city’s reputation as a capable and welcoming host.

  2. 2.

    Enhancing City Governance: Hosting marathon events tests a city’s governance and organizational capacity. Improving management structures, infrastructure, and service quality can elevate participant satisfaction and enhance the city’s brand image. Effective governance strategies that facilitate seamless event execution—such as efficient traffic management, safety protocols, and environmental cleanliness—further enhance the city’s image and attractiveness.

  3. 3.

    Strengthening Event Branding: Event branding plays a critical role in attracting participants. Organizers should focus on conveying cultural values, building event narratives, promoting the event spirit, enhancing social media engagement, and cultivating a positive reputation. These efforts deepen participants’ emotional connections and strengthen brand loyalty. Integrating unique city characteristics into the event helps create a distinctive brand image that sets the marathon apart from similar events.

  4. 4.

    Leveraging City Characteristics: Integrating local cultural elements, landmarks, and regional products into the event design fosters deeper interaction between participants and the city. Organizers should explore innovative ways to highlight the city’s heritage through themed races or cultural festivals, enriching the event experience and reinforcing emotional connections. This approach not only positions the event as a sporting competition but also as a platform to showcase the city’s unique identity.

  5. 5.

    Adapting Services to Evolving Needs: Aligning event services with participants’ expectations is essential. Organizers should integrate smart technologies and personalized services to enhance safety, convenience, and the overall participant experience. Advanced measures such as real-time tracking, customized race information, and enhanced safety protocols significantly boost participant satisfaction and loyalty. Combining high-quality services with strong branding efforts will enhance the event’s market competitiveness.

Research limitations and future directions

This study examines the impact of city image on the perception of branded marathon events, offering valuable insights but also highlighting several limitations. First, the reliance on data from the Xiamen International Marathon limits the generalizability of findings. Future research should include diverse locations and various marathon types to validate these results. Second, the study’s cross-sectional design restricts insights into temporal changes in brand perception, suggesting the need for longitudinal studies to capture evolving perceptions over time.

Furthermore, future research can enhance model fit by refining measurement tools, exploring new model structures, or introducing variables such as social media influence, marketing strategies, and individual differences. These efforts will provide deeper insights into how city characteristics impact branded events, offering strategic guidance for event organizers based on robust evidence.