Abstract
This paper aims to provide an empirical prediction of residential well-being (RWB) and sense of community (SoC) among Chinese rural-urban migrants (RUMs). Multiple linear regressions are used with survey data derived from a representative sample of 15 migrant villages located in three major urban regions of China in order to evaluate the contributions of socioeconomic factors, living conditions, and neighborhood conditions to the SoC score and RWB score. The majority of the sample consists of middle-aged, married men who live in shared housing, are registered in the agricultural Hukou (household registration) system, and have subpar housing. Empirical analyses show that, after adjusting for socioeconomic factors, living conditions, and community neighborhood conditions, Hukou status (urban or rural) significantly influences the RWB score rather than the SoC score. In the simultaneous equation models, the following factors can predict the SoC score and RWB score: age, gender, educational attainment, home ownership, number of housing facilities, monthly household income, number of living rooms, number of problem-solving channels, and converted residences. The SoC score and RWB score have a moderately strong correlation. Therefore, improving the living, institutional, socioeconomic, and neighborhood conditions will help to improve the SoC and RWB of RUMs.
Similar content being viewed by others
Background
Globally, migration from rural-to-urban areas is linked to mental health issues in China (Yang et al. 2018), deaths from air pollution in Peru (Carrasco-Escobar et al. 2020), depression in Ethiopia (Erulkar and Medhin, 2022), and migration hazards in Senegal (Boujija et al. 2022). At the moment, scholars are paying attention to the connection between migration and subjective well-being (SWB). Negative outcomes for parents who are left behind (Ghimire et al. 2018; Yahirun and Arenas, 2018; Vanore et al. 2018; Kumar, 2021; Teerawichitchainan and Low, 2021), children who are left behind (Zhao et al. 2018a; Gassmann et al. 2018; Antia et al. 2020; Chen and Zhou, 2021; Kharel et al. 2021), and left-behind spouses (Bhargava and Tan, 2018) are all linked to disruptions to familial norms of coresidence. Another study (Gebeyaw et al. 2022) shows that older homeless rural-urban migrants (RUMs) in Ethiopia have a high prevalence of poor well-being. Furthermore, it is frequently documented that institutional factors—rather than personal traits and living circumstances—play a larger role in the migration patterns of RUMs in China.
China has been using the Hukou (household registration) system since 1958 in order to regulate social protection, maintain social stability, and regulate internal migration between rural and urban areas. The Hukou system was loosened and deregulated until the 1980s, which gave rural laborers the chance to work in urban areas. Since 1992 and 2000, respectively, there has been a sharp rise in the number of first-generation RUMs born before 1980 and new-generation RUMs born in or after 1980 in urban China (Chen and Wang, 2015). According to Schoolman and Ma (2012), first-generation RUMs primarily work in “dirty and hard” industries and migrate temporarily (Zhu, 2007). Chinese policy reforms reduce labor market fragmentation and increase employment opportunities for first-generation RUMs, which is a migration incentive (Seeborg et al. 2000). First-generation RUMs appear to be at a disadvantage due to endowment effects (Messinis, 2013) and the rural-urban income gap (Zhu, 2002; Zhang and Song, 2003). Essentially, an economic theory can account for a portion of the SWB of first-generation RUMs (Harris and Todaro, 1970). Finding the causes of their declining SWB can aid in stabilizing and determining how best to help them.
Compared to first-generation RUMs, new-generation RUMs are more educated and skilled, and likely to work in manufacturing and service industries rather than the construction industry (Zhao et al. 2018b). In contrast to their predecessors, new-generation RUMs have better human capital, a strong desire to settle in cities, and a lower regard for Hukou benefits (Tang and Feng, 2015; Huang et al. 2017). In Chinese cities, registered individuals may be eligible for access to government services like health insurance, property rights, and public education programs. According to empirical evidence, RUMs’ conversion to urban Hukou status is negatively impacted by socioeconomic inequality in urban labor markets (Wu and Zheng, 2018).
However, in contrast to urban residents, RUMs continue to experience widespread discrimination based on Hukou (Meng and Zhang, 2001; Lu et al. 2013; Cheng et al. 2013; Zhang et al. 2016; Zhu, 2016). Hukou can determine a person’s points of access to social services, like hospitals and schools. Workers who migrate within urban China without changing their Hukou are regarded as second-class citizens. As a result, severe discrimination against rural migrants is a common practice among employers, governments, and urban residents. This discrimination has a substantial impact on RUMs’ psychological distress and quality of life (Wang et al. 2010). Rural Hukou continues to be a significant barrier to the institutional mobility of older rural migrants (Cheng et al. 2019). However, according to Xu and Palmer (2011), RUMs’ networks do not seem to have a significant impact on their level of political participation or life satisfaction. The intention of an urban settlement is significantly influenced by welfare programs (Sun et al. 2022) and urban amenities (Liao and Wang, 2019). From the standpoint of institutional design, the conversion of rural areas into urban Hukou has a somewhat protective effect on the psychological health of today’s RUMs (Song and Smith, 2021). Thus, people move to and live in cities as their psychological well-being improves.
At the moment, the majority of RUMs are concentrated in urban areas with underprivileged neighborhoods and subpar residential environments. Large cities are highly preferred by RUMs in China (Xing and Zhang, 2017), particularly megacities (Mohabir et al. 2017; Song et al. 2022). Rarely do RUMs construct their own homes; instead, they either live in housing provided by their employers or rent rooms from long-term residents (Mobrand, 2006). Similarly, China’s “urban diseases” are brought on by the RUMs due to their large number, high concentration, marginalized social standing, and unjust treatment (Gu et al. 2007). Economic incentives play a significant role in the settlement intention of RUMs belonging to the new generation (Chen and Liu, 2016; Chen and Wang, 2019). The housing circumstances of the three categories of new-generation RUMs (labor RUMs, intellectual RUMs, and entrepreneurial RUMs) vary and are mostly influenced by socioeconomic variables and Hukou status (Li, 2010). In eight Chinese cities, social connection is also said to affect the RUMs’ feeling of place in their host cities (Huang et al. 2019). This motivates us to look into the potential influence of socioeconomic factors on residential well-being (RWB) and sense of community (SoC) in Chinese RUMs.
It is crucial to conduct research on SoC and RWB among RUMs in China. First, they don’t receive well-being promotion from urban residents. According to a Shanghai study, among RUMs in urban China, the quantity of local ties is not a significant predictor of good mental health (Jin et al. 2012). Secondly, their promotion and well-being are unaffected by institutional reform. A thorough review of the literature demonstrates that the Hukou system as it exists now negatively affects China’s rural-to-urban migration (Song, 2014). According to a recent study by Chen and Zhao (2017), expanding urban Hukou entitlement won’t in and of itself encourage more rural-to-urban migration. RUMs therefore depend on the institutional components of SoC and RWB. However, no research has been done up to now that details the institutional components of SoC and RWB and how they relate to each other in Chinese RUMs. This research endeavors to address the void by utilizing publicly accessible survey data.
This paper aims to investigate the factors related to the SoC and RWB of Chinese RUMs. This is how the remainder of the paper is structured. Basic concepts, influencing factors, theoretical underpinnings, and research questions are covered in the literature review section. The data source, variables of interest, estimation framework, and statistical strategies are introduced in the method section. The primary findings of this work are shown in the following section. The last section comes to conclude.
Literature review
According to Hoffmann et al. (2019), the push-pull paradigm can be extended to consider the attitudes and choices of RUMs as drivers of migration in India. Theoretically, a couple’s decision to migrate is determined by their SWB (Tam and Grimes, 2022). According to a recent study, RUMs in China may have better psychological health if they have a sense of urban identity (Li et al. 2022a). Therefore, opinions about one’s neighborhood and community may have an impact on migrants’ psychological health in China. Globally, factors that influence migrants’ psychological well-being include age at migration in Surinamese background (Guo et al. 2019), stressors in Sweden (Solberg et al. 2021), health behaviors in the United States (Jagroep et al. 2022), and job mobility in China (Zhang et al. 2022). Individual socioeconomic characteristics are also probably related to RUMs’ well-being.
Professionals in social work, planning, and community development, as well as social theorists and researchers, have turned their focus to SoC and RWB. Although they are frequently disregarded, they are both significant aspects of SWB. Over the course of more than 25 years, Diener has published 200 works on the subject of SWB, or people’s positive emotions and life satisfaction (Diener, 2009). Diener’s (1984) review gives theories emphasizing psychological factors a lot of weight. According to Diener and his allies, SWB, or what is commonly referred to as “happiness”, is made up of several distinct but somewhat related variables (Diener et al. 2009). According to Diener and Suh (1997), social indicators, representative economic indicators, and SWB measures are required to assess a society. In the meantime, family and individual factors strongly predict life satisfaction (Morgan et al. 2011). Furthermore, an empirical study demonstrates the strong correlation between happiness and meaningfulness and family and social relationships (Delle Fave et al. 2011). Previous research indicates that SWB at the community level seems to influence that at the individual level as well (Ng and Fisher, 2016). Within a given city, RUMs may have different SoC and RWB.
SoC’s definition and influencing factors
SoC is the subject of a significant amount of research. “An acknowledged interdependence with others, a willingness to maintain this interdependence by giving to or doing for others what one expects from them,” is how Sarason (1974) first conceptualized SoC. Four components makeup SoC, according to McMillan and Chavis (1986): membership, influence, integration and need fulfillment, and shared emotional connection. Similarly, Royal and Rossi (1996) offer a fresh conceptual framework for comprehending SoC in educational and professional settings. As a result, SoC is used as a standard to evaluate how social and geographic communities are developing (Pretty et al. 2007).
According to Ditchman et al. (2017), the SoC dimension reinforcement of needs is a significant independent predictor of life satisfaction. Similarly, a number of academics discuss how community psychology can benefit from a methodical examination of the creative tension that exists between diversity and SoC (Townley et al. 2011). Furthermore, diversity and community are, in fact, bound together by the core principles of community psychology (Brodsky, 2017). Social support and a sense of community have become increasingly important in response to urbanization (Bess et al. 2002). Adolescent SoC concurrently exhibits strong psychometric qualities (Cicognani et al. 2012). Furthermore, promoting positive outcomes in multicultural communities has practical implications for the operation of multiple psychological systems of care (Brodsky and Marx, 2001; Brodsky, 2009). It’s possible that SoC and RWB among RUMs differ in China.
Theoretically, SoC can be predicted by social support from positive affect (Wang et al. 2015), considerably improve social well-being (Cicognani et al. 2015), and have a catalytic effect on block association participation (Chavis and Wandersman, 1990). A different study indicates that favorable results may be linked to a lack of psychological SoC (Brodsky, 1996). Furthermore, higher SoC is predicted by the frequency of participating in neighboring behavior (Farrell et al. 2004) and linked to formal group involvement (Albanesi et al. 2007). Similarly, an empirical study shows that SoC has a positive correlation with quality of life and social support but a negative correlation with daily hassles (Mak et al. 2009). According to recent data, SoC is positively correlated with the frequency of ritual participation and strongly linked to increased collective efficacy (Perkins and Long, 2002; Sohi et al. 2017). It’s possible that China’s community neighborhood conditions have similar effects.
Furthermore, it has been shown that socioeconomic factors—primarily in Western nations—are linked to SoC. Age profiles, for instance, show a distinct pattern of psychological SWB (Ryff, 1989). By ethnic identity group, analyses show a significant difference in SoC and positive affect (Kenyon and Carter, 2011). Empirically, SoC is associated with quality of life (Gattino et al. 2013), social integration (Prati et al. 2016), life satisfaction (Prezza and Costantini, 1998; Hombrados-Mendieta et al. 2013; Moscato et al. 2014; Zhang et al. 2017), SWB (Davidson and Cotter, 1991; Chi et al. 2017), and community participation (Ramos et al. 2017). According to a Prezza et al. (2001) study, neighborhood relationships, years of residence, marital status, group participation, and area of residence are the factors that predict SoC. Similarly, income has little bearing on SoC (Jorgensen et al. 2010). According to a different study conducted in Baltimore City, low-income communities’ differences in individual and community-level characteristics contribute to the heterogeneity for psychological SoC (Brodsky et al. 1999). There are currently no pertinent reports available in China, particularly among Chinese RUMs.
RWB’s definition and influencing factors
In the 1960s, 1970s, and early 1980s in the United States, attention to RWB corresponds with attention to “residential satisfaction” in the domains of urban affairs, urban planning, environmental design, and urban and community sociology. According to Sirgy (2016), RWB is currently defined as living arrangement satisfaction to the extent that this satisfaction enhances one’s sense of well-being in key life domains. Furthermore, a study carried out in a socioeconomically disadvantaged region demonstrates that children’s perceptions of residential quality are significantly influenced by the residential context (Cicognani et al. 2008a). Similarly, in stressful communities, Dupéré and Perkins (2007) propose that social isolation from neighbors may be protective to mental health. Furthermore, high levels of social connectedness among neighborhood residents are linked to the availability of activities and gathering spots (Lenzi et al. 2013).
The connection between place of residence and psychological well-being has been extensively studied in the literature. For instance, research conducted in the Columbus, Ohio, metropolitan area comes to the conclusion that the correlation between psychological well-being and residential satisfaction is a product of both variables’ reciprocal relationships with personal resources (Schwirian and Schwirian, 1993). Cicognani et al. (2008b) provide evidence in support of the positive correlation between SoC and social participation. A cross-sectional survey shows how the physical environment can improve frail older people’s social well-being (Nordin et al. 2017). According to a study, the residential environment has a greater influence on SWB in older adults in Shanghai than individual resources (Liu et al. 2017a). In particular, a Hong Kong study indicates that living circumstances affect older people’s psychological health and residential satisfaction (Phillips et al. 2005). Qian and Zhu’s (2014) study on RUMs’ sense of place in Guangzhou, China, reveals a notable distinction between RUMs’ sense of place in a city and a community. Furthermore, prior research has connected the SWB of RUMs to their living situations (Zaff and Devlin, 1998). Living conditions may therefore have some impact on SoC and RWB.
Theoretical bases
According to recent research, inhabitants with a higher sense of community are more likely to have higher levels of meaning in life (Kagan et al. 2023) and satisfaction with their community (Gamo and Park, 2024). The well-being of migrants rests on interpersonal relationships and interactions within a large society, as per Durkheim’s theory of social integration (Treviño, 2023). Following the publication of Jokl’s (1981) Theory of the Physical Environment, Kwon et al. (2019) report on the effects of the physical environment on health, happiness, and life satisfaction. Table 1 lists the main elements in SoC and RWB in accordance with recent references, taking into account the need for research on Chinese migrants.
Basic research questions
Nevertheless, the effects of living arrangements and neighborhood conditions on SoC and RWB as reported by Chinese RUMs, have not been examined in any of these earlier studies. Consequently, the literature currently in publication highlights a significant vacuum in the empirical understanding of, for instance, the significance of housing or community-related issues in SoC and RWB. In particular, endogeneity, simultaneity, confounding, multicollinearity, and heteroskedasticity are frequently not taken into account at the same time in earlier research. As a result, the empirical research adds to the relevant associations. Thus, the following questions are the focus of the current study’s investigation:
-
(a)
Which are the primary socioeconomic factors that affect SoC and RWB, respectively, among living conditions and community neighborhood conditions?
-
(b)
Which are the primary socioeconomic factors—living arrangements, neighborhood conditions, and community—that affect SoC and RWB at the same time?
The independent variables in this study are living circumstances, community neighborhood conditions, and socioeconomic factors. It is possible to consider SoC and RWB as dependent variables separately or simultaneously. This study adds to the body of literature by investigating the interrelationship between SoC and RWB in addition to demonstrating the effects of independent variables on SoC and RWB.
Method
Data source
The survey “Development of Migrant Villages under China’s Rapid Urbanization: Implications for Poverty and Slum Policies (DMVCRU, https://reshare.ukdataservice.ac.uk/850682/)” was sponsored by Cardiff University’s Professor Wu (2015) and served as the basis for the analysis in this paper. The purpose of the survey is to look into how migrant villages form dynamically. In 2010, a face-to-face interview project was conducted in three major Chinese cities: Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou. Twenty urban villages are chosen at random from the list of villages for each city. Twenty households are chosen at random using a random start address that is changed at predetermined intervals. There are 1208 valid questionnaires gathered in total.
Definitions of SoC score and RWB score
A module of the DMVCRU does exist that measures SoC with 12 items that reflect neighborhood and community perspectives and RWB with 14 items that measure housing and environmental status. In terms of internal consistency, SoC and RWB have Cronbach’s alpha coefficients of 0.8775 and 0.8150, respectively. According to the agreement measurement, each item accepts responses with scores ranging from 1 (very dissatisfied) to 5 (strongly agree) in SoC and RWB. The SoC score and RWB score, which range from 5 to 60 and 5 to 70, respectively, can therefore be determined by adding up all of their items. Consequently, a high SoC score may indicate a more regarded neighborhood and community atmosphere. A high RWB score may also indicate a more comfortable living space. The mean and standard deviation of each item, as well as descriptive statistics for the full text of the SoC and RWB items, are provided in Table 2.
Figures 1, 2 also show the histograms of the estimates to closely follow the shape of the normal density, respectively. After calculation, the Shapiro–Wilk W-test reports that the RWB score (n = 878, W = 0.99758, V = 1.358 p = 0.22531) and SoC score (n = 878, W = 0.99688, V = 1.746, p = 0.08498) are distributed normally, respectively. Shapiro–Francia W’ test reports that RWB score (n = 878, W’ = 0.99722, V’ = 1.657, p = 0.12533) and SoC score (n = 878, W’ = 0.99688, V’ = 1.859, p = 0.07930) are distributed normally, respectively. As for the RWB score, skewness and kurtosis test for normality reports probability values are 0.4447 for skewness and 0.3582 for kurtosis (joint p value = 0.4890), respectively. Simultaneously, the skewness and kurtosis test for normality report probability values are 0.2286 for skewness and 0.2808 for kurtosis (joint p value = 0.2710), respectively. Thus, the RWB score and SoC score are normally distributed on the angle of skewness and kurtosis. Thus, the SoC score and RWB score can be used as dependent variables for ordinary least-squares (OLS) regression analyses.
Distribution of SoC score.
Distribution of RWB score.
Independent variables
The socioeconomic profiles mainly include age (in years), gender (0 = female, 1 = male), marital status, educational attainment, registered residence, and household monthly income (Chinese Yuan). Marital status is grouped as single (0= unmarried and divorced or widowed) and married status (=1). Educational attainment is categorized as junior high school and below (0 = no education, primary school, and junior high school) and senior middle school and above (1 = senior middle school, technical secondary school, college, undergraduate, and postgraduate). In the sample, there are only four RUMs with postgraduate degrees. Thus, they are treated as missing values. The registered residence is divided into agricultural household (0 = city agricultural household and rural agricultural household) and non-agricultural household (1 = city non-agricultural household and rural non-agricultural household).
Living conditions include home ownership, number of bedrooms, number of living rooms, and number of housing facilities. Home ownership of living conditions is grouped by shared accommodation (=0) and own home (=1). Here, number of housing facilities is measured by the question: “Do you have the following housing facilities?” with response options of yes (=1) and no (=0). The items of housing facilities included a separate kitchen, separate toilet, shower facilities, liquefied gas, gas pipeline, air conditioning, heating equipment, and internet. Thus, the number of housing facilities is calculated by the sum of all of them.
Community neighborhood conditions include the number of problem-solving channels and converted residences. The number of problem-solving channels is measured by the question: “When the resident faces a problem regarding housing or community issues, would he/she solve the problems using the following channels?” with response options of yes (=1) and no (=0). The problem-solving channels include old friends and neighbors, neighborhood committee, village committee, property management company or developers, owners’ committee, relevant governmental departments, media, and others. Thus, the number of problem-solving channels is calculated by the sum of all of them. The variable of converted residences is measured by the question: “Do you think that the residences will be converted? ” with the response options of no (=0) and yes (=1).
Regression equations
The regressions for RWB score have the following form:
\({RWB}\,{score}=\beta 0+\beta 1\times {Age}+\beta 2\times {Gender}+\beta 3\times {Being\; married}+\beta 4\times {Educational\; attainment}+\beta 5\times {Hukou}+\beta 6\times {Ownership}+\beta 7\times {Family}\mbox{'}{s\; household\; income\; per\; month}+\beta 8\times {Number\; of\; housing\; facilities}+\beta 9\times {Number\; of\; bedrooms}+\beta 10\times {Number\; of\; living\; rooms}+\beta 11\times {Number\; of\; problem}-{solving\; channels}+\beta 12\times {Converted\; residences}+u1\)
The regressions for SoC score are defined analogously and have the following form:
SoC score = γ0 + γ1×Age + γ2 × Gender + γ3 × Being married + γ4 × Educational attainment + γ5 × Hukou + γ6 × Ownership + γ7 × Family’s household income per month + γ8 × Number of housing facilities + γ9 × Number of bedrooms + γ10 × Number of living rooms + γ11×Number of problem-solving channels + γ12 × Converted residences + u2
Here, β and γ are estimated parameters in the two regression equations, respectively. u1 and u2 are random error terms and are often assumed to be independent and identically distributed, respectively.
Statistical strategies
Due to the fact that the SoC score and RWB score are close to continuous measures, the suitability of ordinary least-squares (OLS) models is a potential analytical tool. First, in order to assess multicollinearity amongst the independent variables, the estat vif command (in the Stata program) is adopted to calculate the variance inflation factor (VIF) values for the independent variables after the regression. In the results from collinearity diagnostics, a group of independent variables with VIF values (<10) cannot be necessary to merit further investigation. Simultaneously, the multicollinearity is not a problem and can be safely ignored. Meanwhile, the Breusch–Pagan/Cook–Weisberg test for heteroskedasticity and Cameron and Trivedi’s decomposition of IM-test are employed to assess heteroskedasticity. If the p value in the tests is (preferably) 0.05 or smaller, then there is heteroskedasticity. Before heteroskedastic linear regression, the least-squares residuals against the value of the SoC score and RWB score are plotted by using the rvpplot command after OLS regression in order to model the variance function, respectively. After independent variables to model the variance are selected, heteroskedastic linear regressions are performed to explore the relationship between independent variables of interest and SoC score and RWB score, respectively.
Second, with respect to confounding effect, instrumental-variable quantile treatment effects (Stata program: ivqte) with quintile (0.5) is adopted to estimate the effect of Hukou status (home ownership) on SoC score and RWB score with a potential instrument (home ownership/Hukou status). The control variables are continuous variables (age, number of housing facilities, household monthly income, number of bedrooms, number of living rooms, and number of problem-solving channels) and dummies (gender, marital status, educational attainment, and converted residences).
Third, OLS linear regression with suppressing the constant term (Stata program: regress, noconstant) is adopted to analyze how living conditions and community neighborhood conditions influence SoC score and RWB score in the scenarios of shared accommodation, own home, and total sample, respectively. Regarding simultaneity, simultaneous equation models are applied when the phenomena are assumed to be reciprocally causal.
Thus, fourthly, three-stage estimation for simultaneous equations (Stata program: reg3) is adopted to analyze how living conditions and community neighborhood conditions influence SoC score and RWB score in the scenarios of shared accommodation, own home, and total sample, respectively. The method combines seemingly unrelated regression with two-stage least-squares estimation, which estimates all coefficients simultaneously and permits correlations of the unobserved disturbances across several equations. Finally, Zellner’s (1962, 1963) seemingly unrelated regression (Stata program: sureg), multivariate regression (Stata program: mvreg), and mixed-process regression (Stata program: cmp) are adopted to perform joint tests in order to correct endogeneity, respectively. Actually, correlation rho can reflect the interrelationship between the SoC score and the RWB score.
Results
Table 3 demonstrates that there are notable variations in home ownership based on factors such as RWB score, number of bedrooms, number of housing facilities, converted residences, gender and marital status, and household monthly income. The 900 heads of household in the study are split between two marital statuses (married: 74.49%, single: 25.51%), with men making up 84.53% of the participants. The age range of the sample is 15–80 years old (mean = 35.18 years; standard deviation = 12.54 years). 86.09% of the sample believes that the homes will be converted in the interim.
In terms of residential status, a fraction of participants owns a home (14.06%) and shares accommodation (85.94%). Among the participants, 74.01%, or nearly three-fourths, have agricultural Hukou. He and Wang (2015) state that the new-generation RUMs thus predominate in the sample. A percentage of the participants (55.17%) states that they have completed junior high school or less in terms of education. In terms of employment, the sample (n = 898) is made up of: workers in state-owned economic units (3.90%); workers in urban collective economic units (4.68%); workers in other types of economic units (6.12%); owners of individual private enterprises in urban areas (32.29%); urban self-employed in private areas (33.30%); reemployed retired staff members (0.67%); workers in other sectors (9.58%); students (0.33%); homemakers (1.78%); retirees (3.90%); people awaiting allocation (1.34%); unemployed (0.67%); researchers (0.11%); and others (1.34%). Almost all of the participants live in two different housing facilities, have one bedroom, and no living room.
Figure 3 reports median RWB score in Guangzhou is the largest, followed by those in Shanghai and Beijing. The interquartile range of SoC score in Guangzhou is the largest in Fig. 4, with those in Beijing and Shanghai following closely behind.
RWB score in the three cities.
SoC score in the three cities.
Table 4 surprisingly demonstrates that VIFs in the linear regression on the RWB score and SoC score are less than 1.80. As a result, multicollinearity is safe to ignore and poses no threat. According to Cameron and Trivedi’s breakdown of IM-tests, there is strong evidence in favor of heteroskedasticity in the two regression equations.
With the least-squares residuals against the value of SoC score and RWB score after OLS regression, age, number of housing facilities, household monthly income, and number of problem-solving channels are selected as the independent variables to model the variance in Table 5. Lnσ2 of the number of problem-solving channels significantly predicts the SoC score and RWB score positively, respectively. In a similar vein, the SoC score and RWB score are positively predicted by ownership, number of bedrooms, number of living rooms, and converted residences, respectively.
The statistical results of regressions using ownership and Hukou status as treatment and instrumental variables, respectively, are shown in Table 6. Hukou status has a significant impact on RWB score but not SoC score after adjusting for age, gender, marital status, educational attainment, monthly household income, number of living rooms, number of bedrooms, number of problem-solving channels, and number of converted residences. Ownership status has no discernible impact on the SoC score and RWB score after adjusting for age, gender, marital status, level of education, monthly household income, number of housing facilities, number of bedrooms, number of living rooms, number of problem-solving channels, and converted residences.
In the shared accommodation sample, own home sample, and total sample, Table 7 demonstrates that the SoC score and RWB score are positively associated with age and the number of problem-solving channels, respectively. In the shared accommodation sample and total sample, respectively, the following variables have positively significant associations with SoC score and RWB score: gender, number of housing facilities, household monthly income, number of living rooms, and converted residences. In the entire sample, ownership has positively significant associations with both the SoC score and RWB score.
Table 8 demonstrates that in the shared accommodation sample, own home sample, and total sample, respectively, age, gender, educational attainment, number of living rooms, number of problem-solving channels, and converted residences have positively significant associations with SoC score and RWB score. However, in the three samples, the number of living rooms can result in a decrease in the SoC score and RWB score. In the meantime, the RWB score in the three samples may decrease due to Hukou status.
Table 9 demonstrates how the SoC score and RWB score in the three simultaneous equation models can be predicted, respectively, by age, gender, educational attainment, home ownership, number of housing facilities, household monthly income, number of living rooms, number of problem-solving channels, and converted residences. In the meantime, a decrease in the SoC score and RWB score can be caused by the Hukou status and the quantity of living rooms, respectively. In the seemingly unrelated regression, multivariate regression, and mixed-process regression, the estimated correlation coefficient is >0.56, respectively. The SoC score and RWB score thus have a moderate correlation.
Discussion
The SoC score and RWB score, respectively, are determined by the following factors: living conditions (home ownership, number of bedrooms, number of living rooms, and number of housing facilities), neighborhood conditions (number of problem-solving channels and converted residences), and sociodemographic characteristics (age, gender, marital status, and household monthly income). As far as the authors are aware, this is the first study to calculate the correlation between the SoC score and RWB score of RUMs who are temporarily registered, have low social and economic status, and have substandard housing. This study indicates a correlation between the SoC score and the RWB score. The study’s regression analysis reveals that, for the entire sample, the number of housing facilities, monthly household income, number of living rooms, number of problem-solving channels, and number of converted residences have significant but varying effects on the SoC score and RWB score.
Some published findings can help to explain the empirical results of this study in terms of socioeconomic factors. First off, this study’s results are consistent with those of Zeng et al. (2020). They discover that a number of sociodemographic factors, including gender, income, and education, as well as housing attributes like size and the standard of sanitary facilities and kitchens, significantly influence how satisfied new-generation RUMs are at home. According to this study, older RUMs have higher SoC score and RWB score than younger RUMs. An empirical study can clarify this. According to a Guangzhou study, RUMs are more likely to move into residential areas in the urban core as they get older (Li and Mao, 2018). Second, in China, gender affects RUMs’ SoC score and RWB score. A study conducted in the West found that gender differences account for individual happiness (Lera-López et al. 2018). Some empirical research can shed light on the gender role in happiness studies in the context of China. For instance, Fan et al. (2013) found that, out of all the groups, female RUMs experience the greatest barriers to healthcare access, based on data from 531 RUMs and 529 local urban residents in Shanghai, China, who are between the ages of 16 and 64. Gender discrimination serves as a further source of explanation. Jiang et al. (2011), for instance, discovered that gender discrimination has some detrimental effects on China’s development. Third, married individuals are more likely to have high SoC score and RWB score in the regression analysis. In comparison to single people, this indicates a decline in urban prejudice and an increase in the need for residential space. Fourth, the SoC score and RWB score are reflected in simultaneous equation models and are dependent on the monthly household income. Wage disparities between urban locals and RUMs can be used to support this. Because of the sectorial effect, wage effect, working time effect, and population effect, the annual earnings of urban residents in China’s cities are higher than the long-term earnings of RUMs (Démurger et al. 2009). Even though RUMs face institutionalized Hukou discrimination (Ouyang et al. 2017) and are paid a discrimination wage (Magnani and Zhu, 2012), they are still in competition for high levels of living conditions based on their SoC score and RWB score.
Additionally, it has been established that living conditions affect both the SoC score and RWB score. The SoC score and RWB score are positively correlated with home ownership. These are consistent with findings from several pertinent studies. Numerous studies show that RUMs’ access to affordable housing mechanisms in urban China is restricted by their Hukou status (Yu and Cai, 2013; Wu and Zhang, 2018). In the late 1990s, migrant households in urban China began to experience a new kind of housing poverty (Sato, 2006). It’s possible that migrant workers’ housing conditions won’t get better as a result of the relationship between the government and private providers (Li and Zhang, 2011). A study conducted in Jiangsu province on the housing tenure of China’s RUMs in eight destination municipalities reveals that Hukou, age, gender, educational attainment, household size, and personal income all have an impact on the prevalence of home ownership (Huang et al. 2014). This is also consistent with earlier studies showing that workers who get the accommodations they request are noticeably happier with them (Balser and Harris, 2008).
The study’s key finding is that a limited number of housing facilities have statistically significant positive correlations with SWB. Additionally, there is a negative significant correlation between the number of living rooms and SWB and a positive significant correlation between the number of bedrooms and SWB. The results can be explained by the fact that, as a result of their low income, the majority of RUMs reside in urban villages (Chengzhongcun, urban villages, or villages in the city). RUMs’ housing needs have been documented in a number of other studies (e.g., Wu, 2008a; Lin and Zhu, 2010). According to some Chinese studies (Lau and Chiu, 2013; Hao et al. 2011), urban villages can provide RUMs with the housing they need when economic necessity and policy constraints allow it (Xiang, 2000; Wang, 2016). Comparable to impoverished neighborhoods (Lin and Meulder, 2012), urban villages are distinguished by inexpensive housing associated with unclear property rights, an unofficial rental market, and a lack of state regulation (Liu et al. 2010). Beijing’s peri-urban area saw a concentration of thousands of youthful, highly educated RUMs after 2000, giving rise to a new type of urban slum (Zhao, 2013). A study using secondary data shows that the majority of RUMs, particularly in Beijing, struggle with housing overcrowding (Liu, 2017). RUMs are isolated from urban residents, according to studies conducted in Shanghai (Feng et al. 2006). They are concentrated in the peri-urban area, which is viewed as a potential crisis point that could jeopardize social and economic development (Wu, 2008b). According to research, RUMs living in urban China have lower life satisfaction levels (Cai and Wang, 2018) and an average happiness score (Knight and Gunatilaka, 2010) compared to rural households.
The statistical results of this study are consistent with certain findings from studies conducted in China with respect to community neighborhood conditions. For instance, a study suggests that urban Chinese migrants’ SWB can be improved by their satisfaction with the community environment (Lin and Huang, 2018). According to Bonnefond and Mabrouk’s (2019) investigation, internal migrants who have settled in cities but possess a rural hukou are less likely than their rural counterparts to report good life satisfaction. According to a different study, residents’ quality of life can be greatly enhanced by making physical community environments better from the perspectives of social, mental, and ecological well-being (Aman et al. 2022). Chinese adults who resided in communities with higher levels of community insecurity are likely to have lower levels of SWB, according to a 2018 study conducted in 160 communities in Yunnan, China (Wei et al. 2022). Neighborhood social support (Chen et al. 2021) and community support (Jia et al. 2021) can lower mental health risks and psychological distress during the COVID-19 pandemic.
This study’s findings about the correlation between SoC score and RWB score are consistent with those found in the Western world. For instance, a cross-sectional study conducted in the US suggests that SoC can both predict and affect the course of recovery for people residing in recovery homes (Stevens et al. 2018). However, this study contradicts another study that finds no significant correlation between SoC and neighborhood association or neighborhood physical characteristics (Kingston et al. 1999).
Based on earlier research, some empirical findings shed light on the redesign of policies. According to a number of recent studies, China’s urban housing reform efforts can be considered unsuccessful if they have a negative impact on the SoC score and RWB score. In actuality, RUMs’ social integration into cities is less complete than that of China’s urban-urban migrants (Qin et al. 2021). Among RUMs in China, home ownership may raise the possibility that they will use urban public health services (Wang et al. 2020). Realistically, several studies have discovered that the enhancement of RUMs’ housing is disregarded and overlooked by the present housing reforms in urban China (Shen, 2002; Jeong, 2011; Hu et al. 2014; Shen, 2015). Worse yet, a long-term study finds that RUMs face a significant “glass ceiling” in the urban labor market (Qu and Zhao, 2017). Empirically, the wages of migrant workers are statistically significantly impacted by a few neighborhood characteristics (Cheng and Wang, 2013). In particular, prior research indicates that the RUMs’ SWB varies in relation to community ties and work conditions (Akay et al. 2012). In particular, SoC in China has the ability to fully mediate the associations among neighborhood environment, meaning in life, and positive affect (Zhang and Zhang, 2018), predict local political participation (Xu et al. 2010), and mediate the relationship between public space and well-being (Zhang et al. 2018). In modern China, neighborhood interaction is regularly and significantly linked to community participation among RUMs (Palmer et al. 2011). Furthermore, when looking for social support, new-generation RUMs are probably going to turn to non-kin, non-territorial, and cross-class networks (Liu et al. 2012). Based on the aforementioned research findings, Chinese urban governments can therefore reconsider and redesign their housing policies for RUMs.
The main findings based on the historical data can be considered to provide reasonable implications for the present day, according to subsections of the Statistics on Children of Migrant Workers and Rural Left Behind Children in Schools in 2022 China Statistical Yearbook (http://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/2022/indexeh.htm) and the Migrant population (100 million persons) in the 2020 China Statistical Yearbook (http://www.stats.gov.cn/sj/ndsj/2020/indexeh.htm). Thus, the primary conclusions drawn from the data in 2010 may be thought to have pertinent implications for the current situation in the 2020 s given that migration has increased since 2010. As a result, the empirical findings of this study offer policymakers fresh perspectives on how to enhance the SoC score and RWB score among RUMs. With an emphasis on Chinese urban administration, decision-makers can identify future areas where SoC score and RWB score can be enhanced by using the paper’s analytical process as a logic. Administrators who work with Chinese rural-urban migrants need to understand SoC score and RWB score. This could reduce administrative bias and enable the implementation of effective urban policies. From this vantage point, developing systems that improve the policy-design process requires identifying the factors that influence housing arrangements and neighborhood conditions. This can also aid in the process of designing policies and putting them into practice for environmental planning in migrant villages found in China’s urban areas.
Future research directions may be indicated by some important information that this study overlooked. The significance of social support in enhancing emotional well-being has been highlighted by certain studies conducted in Bangladesh (Koly et al. 2021), Sweden (Alexander et al. 2021), Western countries (Ekoh et al. 2022), and China (Zou et al. 2021). The RUMs, on the other hand, have lower levels of SWB than locals, and the social environment, social support, and feeling of relative deprivation all have an impact on the cognitive components of SWB (Liu et al. 2017b). Future studies can therefore compare the well-being of RUMs, urban residents, and peers from rural areas as a function of social support. Furthermore, because the questionnaire lacked important neighborhood variables, the study did not report on the role of neighborhood environments; however, other studies have documented this role (Schwanen and Wang, 2014; Ma et al. 2018). As a result, future study settings may include the neighborhood’s built, social, and natural environments.
Strengths and limitations
This study has two primary strengths. First, selecting the best strategies is aided by the provisional explanations of dependent variables. Second, to investigate the relationships of interest, the statistical design is based on multicollinearity, heteroskedasticity, simultaneity, confounding effect, and endogeneity. In addition, different applications of a range of regression models reflect the desired relationships objectively.
This study has two primary limitations. Firstly, the longitudinal associations of interest could not be represented by this cross-sectional study. The SWB of RUMs should be investigated further using panel data in order to identify generalized causal results. Secondly, it is impossible to conduct a comparative analysis without a sample of peers from rural and urban areas.
Conclusions
In conclusion, the present study’s findings indicate that living conditions and community neighborhood conditions influence the SoC score and RWB score among the RUMs. In addition, the SoC score has a moderate correlation with the RWB score. Moreover, institutional factors like Hukou also influence RUMs’ RWB score. The best way to increase well-being, according to this study, are to increase the number of converted homes and housing wealth. In the future, longitudinal data may be used to reflect the associations of interest through comparative and causative studies.
Data availability
All data analysed during this study are publicly available and deposited in the UK Data Service (study number: 850682, https://reshare.ukdataservice.ac.uk/850682/). Thus, it is not necessary for the authors to deposit the datasets.
References
Akay A, Bargain O, Zimmermann KF (2012) Relative concerns of rural-to-urban migrants in China. J Econ Behav Organ 81(2):421–441
Albanesi C, Cicognani E, Zani B (2007) Sense of community, civic engagement and social well-being in Italian adolescents. J Community Appl Soc Psychol 17:387–406
Alexander N, Mathilde S, Øivind S (2021) Post-migration stressors and subjective well-being in adult Syrian refugees resettled in Sweden: a gender perspective. Front Public Health 9:717353
Aman J, Abbas J, Shi G, Ain NU, Gu L (2022) Community well-being under China-Pakistan economic corridor: role of social, economic, cultural, and educational factors in improving residents’ quality of life. Front Psychol 12:816592
Antia K, Boucsein J, Deckert A, Dambach P, Račaitė J, Šurkienė G, Jaenisch T, Horstick O, Winkler V (2020) Effects of international labour migration on the mental health and well-being of left-behind children: a systematic literature review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 17(12):4335
Balser DB, Harris MM (2008) Factors affecting employee satisfaction with disability accommodation: a field study. Empl Responsibilities Rights J 20(1):13–28
Bess KD, Fisher AT, Sonn CC, Bishop BJ (2002) Psychological sense of community: theory, research, and application. In: Fisher AT, Sonn CC, Bishop BJ (eds) Psychological sense of community. the plenum series in social/clinical psychology. Springer, Boston, MA
Bhargava A, Tan X (2018) A longitudinal analysis of internal migration, divorce and well-being in China. J Biosoc Sci 50(5):706–722
Bonnefond C, Mabrouk F (2019) Subjective well-being in China: direct and indirect effects of rural-to-urban migrant status. Rev Soc Econ 77(4):442–468
Boujija Y, Bignami S, Delaunay V, Sandberg J (2022) Who matters most? Migrant networks, tie strength, and first rural-urban migration to Dakar. Demography 59(5):1683–1711
Bowe M, Wakefield JRH, Kellezi B, Stevenson C, McNamara N, Jones BA, Sumich A, Heym N (2022) The mental health benefits of community helping during crisis: coordinated helping, community identification and sense of unity during the COVID-19 pandemic. J Community Appl Soc Psychol 32(3):521–535
Brink M (2011) Parameters of well-being and subjective health and their relationship with residential traffic noise exposure–a representative evaluation in Switzerland. Environ Int 37(4):723–733
Brodsky AE (1996) Resilient single mothers in risky neighborhoods: negative psychological sense of community. J Community Psychol 24(4):347–363
Brodsky AE (2009) Multiple psychological senses of community in Afghan context: exploring commitment and sacrifice in an underground resistance community. Am J Community Psychol 44(3-4):176–187
Brodsky AE (2017) Bridging the dialectic: diversity, psychological sense of community, and inclusion. Am J Community Psychol 59:269–277
Brodsky AE, O’Campo PJ, Aronson RE (1999) PSOC in community context: multilevel correlates of a measure of psychological sense of community in low-income, urban neighborhoods. J Community Psychol 27(6):659–679
Brodsky A, Marx C (2001) Layers of identity: multiple psychological sense of community within a community setting. J Community Psychol 29(2):161–178
Cai S, Wang J (2018) Less advantaged, more optimistic? Subjective well-being among rural, migrant and urban populations in contemporary China. China Economic Rev 52:95–110
Carrasco-Escobar G, Schwarz L, Miranda JJ, Benmarhnia T (2020) Revealing the air pollution burden associated with internal migration in Peru. Sci Rep. 10(1):7147
Chavis DM, Wandersman A (1990) Sense of community in the urban environment: a catalyst for participation and community development. Am J Community Psychol 18:55–82
Chen C, Zhao M (2017) The undermining of rural labor out-migration by household strategies in China’s migrant-sending areas: the case of Nanyang, Henan Province. Cities 60(Part B):446–453
Chen J, Wang W (2019) Economic incentives and settlement intentions of rural migrants: evidence from China. J Urban Aff 41(3):372–389
Chen S, Liu Z (2016) What determines the settlement intention of rural migrants in China? Economic incentives versus sociocultural conditions. Habitat Int 58:42–50
Chen R, Zhou L (2021) Parental migration and psychological well-being of children in rural China. Int J Environ Res public health 18(15):8085
Chen X, Zou Y, Gao H (2021) Role of neighborhood social support in stress coping and psychological well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from Hubei, China. Health place 69:102532
Chen Y, Wang J (2015) Social integration of new-generation migrants in Shanghai China. Habitat Int 49:419–425
Cheng Y, Rosenberg M, Winterton R, Blackberry I, Gao S (2019) Mobilities of older Chinese rural-urban migrants: a case study in Beijing. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16(3):488
Cheng Z, Guo F, Hugo G, Yuan X (2013) Employment and wage discrimination in the Chinese cities: a comparative study of migrants and locals. Habitat Int 39:246–255
Cheng Z, Wang H (2013) Do neighbourhoods have effects on wages? A study of migrant workers in urban China. Habitat Int 38:222–231
Cicognani E, Albanesi C, Zani B (2008a) The impact of residential context on adolescents’ subjective well-being. J Community Appl Soc Psychol 18(6):558–575
Cicognani E, Mazzoni D, Albanesi C, Zani B (2015) Sense of community and empowerment among young people: Understanding pathways from civic participation to social well-being. Voluntas 26(1):24–44
Cicognani E, Pirini C, Keyes C, Joshanloo M, Rostami R, Nosratabadi M (2008b) Social participation, sense of community and social well-being: a study on American, Italian and Iranian University students. Soc Indic Res 89(1):97–112
Cicognani E, Zani B, Albanesi C (2012) Sense of community in adolescence. Glob J Community Psychol Pract 3(4):119–125
Chi CG, Cai R, Li Y (2017) Factors influencing residents’ subjective well-being at World Heritage Sites. Tour Manag 63:209–222
Corvino C, Martinez-Damia S, Belluzzi M, Marzana D, D’Angelo C (2023) Even though we have different colors, we are all equal here: immigrants building a sense of community and well-being through sport participation. J community Psychol 51(1):201–218
Davidson WB, Cotter PR (1991) The relationship between sense of community and subjective well-being: a first look. J Community Psychol 19(3):246–253
Démurger S, Gurgand M, Li S, Yue X (2009) Migrants as second-class workers in urban China? A decomposition analysis. J Comp Econ 37(4):610–628
Delle Fave A, Brdar I, Freire T, Vella-Brodrick D, Wissing MP (2011) The eudaimonic and hedonic components of happiness: qualitative and quantitative findings. Soc Indic Res 100:185–207
Deng X, Wei Z, Tu C, Yin Y (2023) Sense of community improves community participation in Chinese residential communities: the mediating role of sense of community responsibility and prosocial tendencies. Am J Community Psychol 71(1-2):166–173
Diener E (1984) Subjective well-being. Psychol Bull 95:542–575
Diener E (2009) Assessing well-being: the collected works of Ed Diener. Springer, Dordrecht Heidelberg London New York
Diener E, Napa Scollon C, Lucas RE (2009) The evolving concept of subjective well-being: the multifaceted nature of happiness. In: Diener E (eds) Assessing well-being. Social indicators research series, vol 39. Springer, Dordrecht
Diener E, Suh E (1997) Measuring quality of life: economic, social, and subjective indicators. Soc Indic Res 40:189–216
Ditchman NM, Keegan JP, Batchos EJ, Haak CL, Johnson KS (2017) Sense of community and its impact on the life satisfaction of adults with brain injury. Rehabil Couns Bull 60(4):239–252
Du Y, Jiang H, Huang Z, Yang H (2023) Associations between neighborhood environment and sense of community belonging in urban China: examining mediation effects of neighborly interactions and community satisfaction. Front Public Health 10:1105473
Dupéré V, Perkins DD (2007) Community types and mental health: a multilevel study of local environmental stress and coping. Am J Community Psychol 39:107–119
Ekoh PC, Iwuagwu AO, George EO, Walsh CA (2022) Forced migration-induced diminished social networks and support, and its impact on the emotional well-being of older refugees in Western countries: a scoping review. Arch Gerontol Geriatrics 105:104839
Erulkar A, Medhin G (2022) Factors associated with depression among young female migrants in Ethiopia. BMC Women’s Health 22(1):432
Fan JX, Wen M, Jin L, Wang G (2013) Disparities in healthcare utilization in China: do gender and migration status matter? J Fam Econ Issues 34(1):52–63
Farrell SJ, Aubry T, Coulombe D (2004) Neighborhoods and neighbors: do they contribute to personal well-being? J Community Psychol 32(1):9–25
Feng W, Zuo X, Ruan D (2006) Rural migrants in Shanghai: living under the shadow of socialism. Int Migr Rev 36(2):520–545
Gamo BR, Park DB (2024) Sense of community affects community satisfaction: mediating role of community participation. J Community Psychol 52(1):258–275
Gassmann F, Siegel M, Vanore M, Waidler J (2018) Unpacking the relationship between parental migration and child well-Being: evidence from Moldova and Georgia. Child Indic Res 11(2):423–440
Gattino S, Piccoli ND, Fassio O, Rollero C (2013) Quality of life and sense of community. A study on health and place of residence. J Community Psychol 41(7):811–826
Gebeyaw G, Kotecho MG, Adamek ME (2022) ‘No matter how harsh, we are alive’: coping strategies of rural-urban migrant homeless older people in Ethiopia. Health Soc Care Community. https://doi.org/10.1111/hsc.13848
Ghimire S, Singh DR, Nath D, Jeffers EM, Kaphle M (2018) Adult children’s migration and well-being of left behind Nepalese elderly parents. J Epidemiol Glob health 8(3-4):154–161
Giebel C, Morley N, Komuravelli A (2021) A socially prescribed community service for people living with dementia and family carers and its long-term effects on well-being. Health Soc Care Community 29(6):1852–1857
Gil-Moltó MJ, Hole AR (2023) The impact of adult children living at home on the well-being of Spanish parents: evidence from panel data. Soc Sci Med 340:116492
Glenn NM, Yashadhana A, Jaques K, Belon A, de Leeuw E, Nykiforuk CIJ, Harris P (2023) The generative mechanisms of financial strain and financial well-being: a critical realist analysis of ideology and difference. Int J health policy Manag 12:6930
Gu S, Zheng L, Yi S (2007) Problems of rural migrant workers and policies in the new period of urbanization. China Popul, Resour Environ 17(1):1–6
Guo M, Stensland M, Li M, Dong X, Tiwari A (2019) Is migration at older age associated with poorer psychological well-being? Evidence from Chinese older immigrants in the United States. Gerontologist 59(5):865–876
Hao P, Sliuzas R, Geertman S (2011) The development and redevelopment of urban villages in Shenzhen. Habitat Int 35(2):214–224
Harris JR, Todaro M (1970) Migration, unemployment and development: a two sector analysis. Am Econ Rev 40:126–142
He S, Wang K (2015) China’s new generation migrant workers’ urban experience and well-being. Mobility, sociability and well-being of urban living. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg, p 67–91
Hilger-Kolb J, Schneider S, Herr R, Osenbruegge N, Hoffmann S, Herke M, Pischke C, Sundmacher L, Diehl K (2020) Associations between contextual and compositional characteristics of early childcare facilities with health, health behaviours and well-being among young children aged 06 years: protocol for a scoping review. BMJ Open 10(9):e037038. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037038
Hoffmann EM, Konerding V, Nautiyal S, Buerkert A (2019) Is the push-pull paradigm useful to explain rural-urban migration? A case study in Uttarakhand, India. PLoS ONE 14(4):e0214511
Hombrados-Mendieta MI, Gomez-Jacinto L, Dominguez-Fuentes JM, Garcia-Leiva P (2013) Sense of community and satisfaction with life among immigrants and the native population. J Community Psychol 41(5):601–614
Howden-Chapman P, Bennett J, Edwards R, Jacobs D, Nathan K, Ormandy D (2023) Review of the impact of housing quality on inequalities in health and well-being. Annu Rev Public Health 44:233–254
Hu ECM, Yu KH, Ye Y (2014) Housing preferences of temporary migrants in urban China in the wake of gradual hukou reform: a case study of Shenzhen. Int J Urban Region Res 38(4):1384–1398
Huang X, Dijst M, Weesep J, Zou N (2014) Residential mobility in China: home ownership among rural–urban migrants after reform of the hukou registration system. J Hous Built Environ 29(4):615–636
Huang X, Dijst M, Weesep J, Jiao Y, Sun Y (2017) Residential choice among rural-urban migrants after hukou reform: evidence from Suzhou, China. Popul, Space Place 23(4):e2035
Huang X, Zhao B, Liu Y, Xue D (2019) Belonging to a place: an analysis of the perceptions of rural-to-urban migrants in China. Geogr Rev https://doi.org/10.1111/gere.12366
Igarashi A, Matsumoto H, Suzuki H, Takaoka M, Kugai H, Sakka M, Yamamoto-Mitani N (2023). Helping behaviours of community members towards older adults and the related factors: a cross-sectional study. Psychogeriatricshttps://doi.org/10.1111/psyg.13050
Jagroep W, Cramm JM, Denktaş S, Nieboer AP (2022) Health behaviours and well-being among older adults with a Surinamese migration background in the Netherlands. BMC Public Health 22(1):2006
Jeong JH (2011) From illegal migrant settlements to central business and residential districts: restructuring of urban space in Beijing’s migrant enclaves. Habitat Int 35(3):508–513
Jia Z, Xu S, Zhang Z, Cheng Z, Han H, Xu H, Wang M, Zhang H, Zhou Y, Zhou Z (2021) Association between mental health and community support in lockdown communities during the COVID-19 pandemic: evidence from rural China. J rural Stud 82:87–97
Jiang Q, Li S, Feldman MW (2011) Demographic consequences of gender discrimination in China: simulation analysis of policy options. Popul Res Policy Rev 30(4):619–638
Jin L, Wen M, Fan JX, Wang G (2012) Trans-local ties, local ties and psychological well-being among rural-to-urban migrants in Shanghai. Soc Sci Med 75(2):288–296
Jokl MV (1981) Theory of the physical environment: an introduction. Environ Manag 5:295–299
Jorgensen BS, Jamieson RD, Martin JF (2010) Income, sense of community and subjective well-being: combining economic and psychological variables. J Econ Psychol 31(4):612–623
Kagan M, Zychlinski E, Greenblatt-Kimron L (2023). The mediating roles of optimism, loneliness, and psychological distress in the association between a sense of community and meaning in life among older adults. Am J Commun Psychol. https://doi.org/10.1002/ajcp.12717
Kenyon DB, Carter JS (2011) Ethnic identity, sense of community, and psychological well-being among northern plains American Indian youth. J Community Psychol 39(1):1–9
Kharel M, Akira S, Kiriya J, Ong KIC, Jimba M (2021) Parental migration and psychological well-being of left-behind adolescents in Western Nepal. PLoS ONE 16(1):e0245873
Kim HR, Oh WS, Kim JG, Shin WS (2023) The influence of urban gardening activities on participants’ perceived restorativeness, resilience, sense of community and stress. Healthcare11(12):1664
Kingston S, Mitchell R, Florin P, Stevenson S (1999) Sense of community in neighborhoods as a multi-level construct. J Community Psychol 27:681–694
Knight J, Gunatilaka R (2010) Great expectations? The subjective well-being of rural–urban migrants in China. World Dev 38(1):113–124
Koly KN, Islam MS, Reidpath DD, Saba J, Shafique S, Chowdhury MR, Begum F (2021) Health-related quality of life among rural-urban migrants living in Dhaka slums: a cross-sectional survey in Bangladesh. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18(19):10507
Kwon M, Pickett AC, Lee Y et al. (2019) Neighborhood physical environments, recreational well-being, and psychological health. Appl Res Qual Life 14:253–271
Kuehnle E, Jungk J, Brodowski L, Kohls F, Hillemanns P, Staboulidou I (2023) Effects of recreational therapy and 3D ultrasonography for high-risk pregnancies on psychological well-being during hospitalization and in the puerperal phase. J Clin Med 12(19):6228
Kumar S (2021) Offspring’s labor migration and its implications for elderly parents’ emotional well-being in Indonesia. Soc Sci Med 276:113832
Lardier DT, Opara I, Garcia-Reid P, Reid RJ (2021) The mediating role of ethnic identity and social justice orientation between community civic participation, psychological sense of community, and dimensions of psychological empowerment among adolescents of color. Urban Rev 53(3):403–423
Lau JCY, Chiu CCH (2013) Dual-track urbanization and co-___location travel behavior of migrant workers in new towns in Guangzhou, China. Cities 30:89–97
Lenzi M, Vieno A, Santinello M, Perkins DD (2013) How neighborhood structural and institutional features can shape neighborhood social connectedness: a multilevel study of adolescent perceptions. Am J Community Psychol 51:451–467
Lera-López F, Ollo-López A, Sánchez-Santos JM (2018) Different alternatives of subjective well-being: a gender analysis. Soc Sci Q 99(4):1303–1323
Li B, Zhang Y (2011) Housing provision for rural–urban migrant workers in Chinese cities: the roles of the state, employers and the market. Soc Policy Adm 45(6):694–713
Li SM, Mao S (2018) The spatial pattern of residential mobility in Guangzhou, China. Int J Urban Region Res. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-2427.12625
Li X, Yu B, Cui J, Zhu Y (2022b) Building a new framework for evaluating the livability of living space on the basis of the daily activities of rural residents: a case study of Jianghan plain. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19(17):10615
Li Y, Chen J, Xie S, Huang X (2022a) Acculturation, urban identity, and psychological well-being of rural-urban migrants in China. Appl Psychol Health Well Being 14(4):1129–1150
Li Z (2010) Housing conditions and housing determinants of new migrants in Chinese cities. Chin Sociol Anthropol 43(2):70–89
Li Z, Jiang Y, Jin Z, Pu Y, Li H (2023) The influence of natural environment in residential areas on subjective well-being of the elderly. Front Public Health 11:1037819
Liao L, Wang C (2019) Urban amenity and settlement intentions of rural-urban migrants in China. PLoS ONE 14(5):e0215868
Lin L, Zhu Y (2010) The diverse housing needs of rural to urban migrants and policy responses in China: insights from a survey in Fuzhou. IDS Bull 41(4):12–21
Lin S, Huang Y (2018) Community environmental satisfaction: its forms and impact on migrants’ happiness in urban China. Health Qual Life Outcomes 16(1):236
Lin Y, Meulder BD (2012) A conceptual framework for the strategic urban project approach for the sustainable redevelopment of “villages in the city” in Guangzhou. Habitat Int 36(3):380–387
Liu Y, Dijst M, Geertman S (2017a) The subjective well-being of older adults in Shanghai: the role of residential environment and individual resources. Urban Stud 54(7):1692–1714
Liu Y, He S, Wu F, Webster C (2010) Urban villages under China’s rapid urbanization: unregulated assets and transitional neighbourhoods. Habitat Int 34(2):135–144
Liu Y, Li Z, Breitung W (2012) The social networks of new-generation migrants in China’s urbanized villages: a case study of Guangzhou. Habitat Int 36(1):192–200
Liu WT (2017) The drawbacks of housing overcrowding characteristic to rural migrants’ life in Beijing. HBRC J 13(3):315–320
Liu Y, Zhang F, Wu F, Liu Y, Li Z (2017b) The subjective well-being of migrants in Guangzhou, China: the impacts of the social and physical environment. Cities 60(Part A):333–342
Lou W, Du C, Qiao Y (2023) How does owning commercial housing affect the subjective well-being of rural-urban migrants?–The mediating effect of housing assets and the moderating effect of debt. PLoS ONE 18(6):e0287258
Lu Y, Ruan D, Lai G (2013) Social capital and economic integration of migrants in urban China. Soc Netw 35(3):357–369
Ma J, Dong G, Chen Y, Zhang W (2018) Does satisfactory neighbourhood environment lead to a satisfying life? An investigation of the association between neighbourhood environment and life satisfaction in Beijing. Cities 74:229–239
Magnani E, Zhu R (2012) Gender wage differentials among rural–urban migrants in China. Region Sci Urban Econ 42(5):779–793
Maiorano N, Travers Á, Vallières F (2023) The relationship between rape myths, revictimization by law enforcement, and well-being for victims of sexual assault. Violence Women 29(14):2873–2890
Mak WWS, Cheung RYM, Law LSC (2009) Sense of community in Hong Kong: relations with community-level characteristics and residents’ well-being. Am J Community Psychol 44(1-2):80–92
Mannarini T, Rizzo M, Brodsky A, Buckingham S, Zhao J, Rochira A, Fedi A (2022) The potential of psychological connectedness: mitigating the impacts of COVID-19 through sense of community and community resilience. J Community Psychol 50(5):2273–2289
Mannarini T, Rochira A, Ciavolino E, Salvatore S (2020) Individual and perceived community determinants of sense of community: the role of universalistic values. J Community Psychol 48(2):623–637
Martinez-Damia S, Paloma V, Luesia JF, Marta E, Marzana D (2023) Community participation and subjective well-being among the immigrant population in Northern Italy: an analysis of mediators. Am J community Psychol 71(3-4):382–394
McMillan DW, Chavis DM (1986) Sense of community: a definition and theory. J Community Psychol 14:6–23
Meng X, Zhang J (2001) The two-tier labor market in urban China: occupational segregation and wage differentials between urban residents and rural migrants in Shanghai. J Comp Econ 29(3):485–504
Messinis G (2013) Returns to education and urban-migrant wage differentials in China: IV quantile treatment effects. China Econ Rev 26:39–55
Mobrand E (2006) Politics of cityward migration: an overview of China in comparative perspective. Habitat Int 30(2):261–274
Mohabir N, Jiang Y, Ma R (2017) Chinese floating migrants: rural-urban migrant labourers’ intentions to stay or return. Habitat Int 60:101–110
Monachesi P (2023) Age friendly characteristics and sense of community of an Italian city: the case of Macerata. Int J Environ Res Public Health 20(10):5847
Morgan ML, Vera EM, Gonzales RR, Conner W, Vacek K, Coyle L (2011) Subjective well-being in urban adolescents: Interpersonal, individual, and community influences. Youth Soc 43(2):609–634
Moscato G, Novara C, Hombrados-Mendieta I, Romano F, Lavanco G (2014) Cultural identification, perceived discrimination and sense of community as predictors of life satisfaction among foreign partners of intercultural families in Italy and Spain: a transnational study. Int J Intercult Relat 40:22–33
Ng ECW, Fisher AT (2016) Protestant spirituality and well-being of people in Hong Kong: the mediating role of sense of community. Appl Res Qual Life 11(4):1253–1267
Nordin S, McKee K, Wijk H, Elf M (2017) The association between the physical environment and the well-being of older people in residential care facilities: a multilevel analysis. J Adv Nurs 73(12):2942–2952
Okojie PW, Isah EC (2014) Sanitary conditions of food vending sites and food handling practices of street food vendors in Benin City, Nigeria: implication for food hygiene and safety. J Environ Public Health 2014:701316
Ouyang W, Wang B, Tian L, Niu X (2017) Spatial deprivation of urban public services in migrant enclaves under the context of a rapidly urbanizing China: an evaluation based on suburban Shanghai. Cities 60(Part B):436–445
Palmer N, Perkins DD, Xu Q (2011) Social capital and community participation by migrant workers in China. J Community Psychol 39(1):89–105
Perkins DD, Long DA (2002) Neighborhood sense of community and social capital: a multi-level analysis. In: Fisher A, Sonn C, Bishop B (Eds.) Psychological sense of community: research, applications, and implications. Plenum, New York, p 291–318
Phillips DR, Siu O, Yeh AGO, Cheng KHC (2005) The impacts of dwelling conditions on older persons’ psychological well-being in Hong Kong: the mediating role of residential satisfaction. Soc Sci Med 60(12):2785–2797
Prati G, Albanesi C, Pietrantoni L (2016) The reciprocal relationship between sense of community and social well-being: A cross-lagged panel analysis. Soc Indic Res 127(3):1321–1332
Pretty G, Bishop B, Fisher A, Sonn C (2007) Psychological sense of community and its relevance to well-being and everyday life in Australia. Aust Community Psychol 19(2):6–25
Prezza M, Amici M, Roberti T, Tedeschi G (2001) Sense of community referred to the whole town: Its relations with neighboring, loneliness, life satisfactions, and area of residence. J Community Psychol 29(1):29–52
Prezza M, Costantini S (1998) Sense of community and life satisfaction: investigation in three different territorial contexts. J Community Appl Soc Psychol 8(3):181–194
Qian J, Zhu H (2014) Chinese urban migrants’ sense of place: emotional attachment, identity formation, and place dependence in the city and community of Guangzhou. Asia Pac Viewp 55(1):81–101
Qin L, Chen CP, Wang W, Chen H (2021) How migrants get integrated in urban China - The impact of health insurance. Soc Sci Med 272:113700
Qu Z, Zhao Z (2017) Glass ceiling effect in urban China: wage inequality of rural-urban migrants during 2002-2007. China Econ Rev 42:118–144
Ramos AK, Carvajal Suarez M, Leon M, Trinidad N (2017) Sense of community, participation, and life satisfaction among Hispanic immigrants in rural Nebraska. Kontakt 19(4):e284–e295
Royal MA, Rossi RJ (1996) Individual-level correlates of sense of community: findings from workplace and school. J Community Psychol 24(4):395–416
Ryff CD (1989) Happiness is everything, or is it? Explorations on the meaning of psychological well-being. J Personal Soc Psychol 57:1069–1081
Sarason SB (1974) The psychological sense of community: prospects for a community psychology. Jossey-Bass (See also American Psychology and Schools.), San Francisco
Sato H (2006) Housing inequality and housing poverty in urban China in the late 1990s. China Econ Rev 17(1):37–50
Schwanen T, Wang D (2014) Well-being, context, and everyday activities in space and time. Ann Assoc Am Geogr 104(4):833–851
Schwirian KP, Schwirian PM (1993) Neighboring, residential satisfaction, and psychological well-being in urban elders. J Community Psychol 21(4):285–299
Schoolman ED, Ma C (2012) Migration, class and environmental inequality: exposure to pollution in China’s Jiangsu Province. Ecol Econ 75:140–151
Seeborg MC, Jin Z, Zhu Y (2000) The new rural-urban labor mobility in China: causes and implications. J Socio-Econ 29(1):39–56
Shen Y (2015) Why does the government fail to improve the living conditions of migrant workers in Shanghai? reflections on the policies and the implementations of public rental housingunder neoliberalism. Asia Pac Policy Stud 2(1):58–74
Shen J (2002) A study of the temporary population in Chinese cities. Habitat Int 26(3):363–377
Sinko L, Rajabi S, Sinko A, Merchant R (2022) Capturing lifestyle changes and emotional experiences while having a compromised immune system during the COVID-19 pandemic: a photo-elicitation study. J Community Psychol 50(5):2411–2430. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcop.22784
Sirgy MJ (2016) Towards a new concept of residential well-being based on bottom-up spillover and need hierarchy theories. In: Maggino F (eds) A life devoted to quality of life. Social indicators research series, vol 60. Springer, Cham
Sohi KK, Singh P, Bopanna K (2017) Ritual participation, sense of community, and social well-being: a study of Seva in the Sikh community. J Relig Health 57(6):1–13
Solberg Ø, Sengoelge M, Nissen A, Saboonchi F (2021) Coping in Limbo? The moderating role of coping strategies in the relationship between post-migration stress and well-being during the asylum-seeking process. Int J Environ Res Public Health 18(3):1004
Song Q, Smith JP (2021) The citizenship advantage in psychological well-being: an examination of the hukou system in China. Demography 58(1):165–189
Song Y (2014) What should economists know about the current Chinese hukou system? China Econ Rev 29:200–212
Song Y, Zhu N, Luo F (2022) City size and permanent settlement intention: evidence from rural-urban migrants in China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19(2):676
Stevens E, Guerrero M, Green A, Jason LA (2018) Relationship of hope, sense of community, and quality of life. J Community Psychol 46(5):567–574
Sun X, Chen J, Xie S (2022) Becoming urban citizens: a three-phase perspective on the social integration of rural-urban migrants in China. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19(10):5946
Svensson SJ, Elntib S (2021) Community cohesion during the first peak of the COVID-19 pandemic: a social antidote to health anxiety and stress. J Appl Soc Psychol 51(8):793–808
Tam D, Grimes A (2022) Migration of dual-earner couples: a subjective well-being approach. Rev Econ Househ. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11150-021-09598-z
Tang S, Feng J (2015) Cohort differences in the urban settlement intentions of rural migrants: a case study in Jiangsu Province, China. Habitat Int 49:357–365
Teerawichitchainan B, Low TQY (2021) The situation and well-being of custodial grandparents in Myanmar: impacts of adult children’s cross-border and internal migration. Soc Sci Med 277:113914
Townley G, Kloos B, Green EP, Franco MM (2011) Reconcilable differences? Human diversity, cultural relativity, and sense of community. Am J Community Psychol 47(1):69–85
Treviño AJ (2023) Durkheim, Emile. In: Sellers M, Kirste S (eds) Encyclopedia of the philosophy of law and social philosophy. Springer, Dordrecht
Vanore M, Siegel M, Gassmann F, Waidler J (2018) Adult child migration and elderly multidimensional well-being: comparative analysis between Moldova and Georgia. Res aging 40(7):599–622
Wang DWD (2016) Migrant city and migrant villages. In. Urban villages in the New China. Palgrave Macmillan, New York
Wang B, Li X, Stanton B, Fang X (2010) The influence of social stigma and discriminatory experience on psychological distress and quality of life among rural-to-urban migrants in China. Soc Sci Med 71(1):84–92
Wang MC, Nyutu PN, Tran KK, Spears A (2015) Finding resilience: the mediation effect of sense of community on the psychological well-being of military spouses. J Ment Health Couns 97(2):164–174
Wang Z, Wu Q, Ming J (2020) The relationship between homeownership and the utilization of local public health services among rural migrants in China: a nationwide cross-sectional study. Front Public Health 8:589038
Wei Q, Shang Q, Bu Q (2022) Consequences of living environment insecurity on health and well-being in southwest China: The role of community cohesion and social support. Health Soc Care Community 30(6):e6414–e6427
Wu J (2008b) The peri-urbanisation of Shanghai: planning, growth pattern and sustainable development. Asia Pac Viewp 49(2):244–253
Wu F (2015) The development of migrant villages under China’s rapid urbanization: implications for poverty and slum policies. (Data Collection). Economic and Social Research Council, Colchester, Essex, 10.5255/UKDA-SN-850682
Wu L, Zhang W (2018) Rural migrants’ homeownership in Chinese urban destinations: do institutional arrangements still matter after Hukou reform? Cities 79:151–158
Wu W (2008a) Chapter 14:Temporary Migrants in Shanghai: Housing and Settlement Patterns. Globalization and Market Reform. First published: 13 May, Book Editor(s), John R. Logan, The New Chinese City
Wu X, Zheng B (2018) Household registration, urban status attainment, and social stratification in China. Res Soc Strat Mobil 53:40–49
Xiang B (2000) Transcending boundaries: Zhejiangcun: the story of a migrant village in Beijing. Chinese language: Beijing: Three-joints Books (English language trans. Jim Weldon; Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers, 2005)
Xing C, Zhang J (2017) The preference for larger cities in China: Evidence from rural-urban migrants. China Econ Rev 43:72–90
Xu Q, Palmer NA (2011) Migrant workers’ community in China: relationships among social networks, life satisfaction and political participation. Psychosoc Interv 20(3):281–294
Xu Q, Perkins DD, Chow JC (2010) Sense of community, neighboring, and social capital as predictors of local political participation in China. Am J Community Psychol 45(3-4):259–271
Yahirun JJ, Arenas E (2018) Offspring migration and parents’ emotional and psychological well-being in Mexico. J Marriage Fam 80(4):975–991
Yang M, Dijst M, Helbich M (2018) Mental health among migrants in Shenzhen, China: does it matter whether the migrant population is identified by Hukou or Birthplace? Int J Environ Res Public Health 15(12):2671
Yu L, Cai H (2013) Challenges for housing rural-to-urban migrants in Beijing. Habitat Int 40:268–277
Yu CY, Woo A (2023) Exploring the nexus between physical environments, resident preferences, and usage frequency of community centers: evidence from two Korean neighborhoods in Seoul. PLoS ONE 18(12):e0295530
Zaff J, Devlin AS (1998) Sense of community in housing for the elderly. J Community Psychol 26(4):381–398
Zellner A (1962) An efficient method of estimating seemingly unrelated regressions and tests for aggregation bias. J Am Stat Assoc 57:348–368
Zellner A (1963) Estimators for seemingly unrelated regression equations: some exact finite sample results. J Am Stat Assoc 58:977–992
Zeng H, Ke Q, Yu X (2020) Investigating the factors affecting the residential satisfaction of new-generation migrants: a case study of Hangzhou in China. Int J Urban Sci. https://doi.org/10.1080/12265934.2020.1713861
Zhang J, Yu NX, Zhang J, Zhou M (2017) Sense of community and life satisfaction in Chinese older adults: moderating roles of personal and partner resilience. J Community Psychol 45(5):577–586
Zhang KH, Song S (2003) Rural–urban migration and urbanization in China: evidence from time-series and cross-section analyses. China Econ Rev 14(4):386–400
Zhang J, Zhang J, Zhou M, Yu NX (2018) Neighborhood characteristics and older adults’ well-being: the roles of sense of community and personal resilience. Soc Indic Res 137(3):1–15
Zhang F, Liu D, Geng X (2022) Job mobility and subjective well-being among new-generation migrant workers in China: the mediating role of interpersonal trust. Int J Environ Res Public Health 19(18):11551
Zhang L, Sharpe RV, Li S, Darity WA (2016) Wage differentials between urban and rural-urban migrant workers in China. China Econ Rev 41:222–233
Zhang Z, Zhang J (2018) Perceived residential environment of neighborhood and subjective well-being among the elderly in China: a mediating role of sense of community. J Environ Psychol 51:82–94
Zhao C, Wang F, Zhou X, Jiang M, Hesketh T (2018a) Impact of parental migration on psychosocial well-being of children left behind: a qualitative study in rural China. Int J Equity Health 17(1):80
Zhao L, Liu S, Zhang W (2018b) New trends in internal migration in China: profiles of the new-generation migrants. China World Econ 26(1):18–41
Zhao P (2013) Too complex to be managed? New trends in peri-urbanisation and its planning in Beijing. Cities 30:68–76
Zhu N (2002) The impacts of income gaps on migration decisions in China. China Econ Rev 13(2-3):213–230
Zhu R (2016) Wage differentials between urban residents and rural migrants in urban China during 2002-2007: a distributional analysis. China Econ Rev 37:2–14
Zhu Y (2007) China’s floating population and their settlement intention in the cities: beyond the Hukou reform. Habitat Int 31(1):65–76
Zhu Y, Holden M (2023) Housing and psychosocial well-being during the COVID-19 pandemic. Habitat Int 135:102812
Zou X, Hall BJ, Xiong M, Wang C (2021) Post-migration well-being of Sub-Saharan Africans in China: a nationwide cross-sectional survey. Qual life Res 30(4):1025–1035
Acknowledgements
The authors of this paper would like to acknowledge the very helpful comments of the reviewers on the original submission.
Funding
This project was funded by a university-level research teaching program from The Academic Affairs Office of Xuchang University (Project number: XCU2022-YJXJG-015). The funding body plays no role in the study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, and manuscript writing. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the project funder.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
MG designed the study, performed the statistical analysis, and completed the original version. HYG participated in the discussion of research design, assisted with literature review and manuscript writing, and performed Tables and Figures under the guidance of MG. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Corresponding authors
Ethics declarations
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Ethical approval
The data adopted was from a publicly available survey dataset whose ethical approval was obtained from the institutional review board at Cardiff University. All methods were carried out in accordance with relevant guidelines and regulations. Thus, it was not necessary to obtain ethical approval from the institutional review board at the authors’ institution.
Informed consent
Written informed consent was obtained from all participants before they agreed to participate in the study. Participants were informed that they could leave the study at any time without penalty, and all personal information was kept confidential.
Additional information
Publisher’s note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
About this article
Cite this article
Guan, M., Guan, H. Sense of community and residential well-being among rural-urban migrants in China. Humanit Soc Sci Commun 11, 345 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02866-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-024-02866-0
