Abstract
The Tibetan and Iranian plateaus are the two most prominent orogenic plateaus on the present Earth built by continental collision. However, the timings of initial collision and suturing in the Himalaya and Zagros remain debated. In this Review, we summarize the timings, similarities and differences between the India–Eurasia collision and the Arabia–Eurasia collision, by comparing their sedimentary, magmatic, metamorphic, structural and palaeomagnetic records. The India–Eurasia collision is tightly constrained to have initiated in the central Himalaya at 65–59 Ma, possibly progressing towards the western and eastern Himalayas by 55–50 Ma. By contrast, the initial collision in the Zagros is loosely constrained to ~34 Ma, with a possibility of diachronous collision, younging to the southeast. Similarities between the two collisions include pre-collisional accretionary tectonism and magmatism, syn-collisional deformation and sedimentation, and crustal thickening. Apparent differences in lithospheric dynamics, deformation styles and metamorphism are attributed to variations in convergence rates, durations and magnitudes. Future research should focus on data-driven modelling and geophysical imaging beneath the Tibetan and Iranian plateaus to further quantify the geodynamic processes and driving forces contributing to continuous plate convergence, plateau formation and their surface impacts.
Key points
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The tectono-sedimentary response in the earliest foreland basin provides the most direct evidence in determining the timing of initial collision, with the temporal and spatial evolution reflecting the suturing process.
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The evolution of foreland basin systems and continuous sedimentary records strongly supports a single-stage India–Eurasia collision over a dual-stage scenario.
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The India–Eurasia initial collision began in the central Himalaya at 65–59 Ma, whereas the Arabia–Eurasia collision most probably initiated at 34 Ma.
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The duration and rates of post-collisional convergence (50–60 mm yr−1 since 50 Ma versus 25–30 mm yr−1 since 25 Ma) determine the extent of Indian and Arabian penetration into Eurasia (1,000–2,000 km versus 150 km), leading to variations in deep dynamics, plateau growth and deformation kinematics.
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The Iranian Plateau preserves its subduction-dominated structure, whereas the Tibetan Plateau evolved through complex deep processes, including subduction, delamination and break-off, transforming from orogenic belts into a united plateau.
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Acknowledgements
The authors thank D.J.J. van Hinsbergen for insightful discussions. This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (92355002), National Natural Science Foundation of China Excellent Research Group for Tibetan Plateau Earth System (continuation grant), the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42172240), and the Second Tibetan Plateau Scientific Expedition and Research Program (2019QZKK0708).
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L.D. conceived the idea and organized the writing process. L.D. and C.W. wrote the first draft of the manuscript and prepared the visualizations. All authors made substantial contributions to the discussion of the content and reviewed and edited the manuscript.
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Glossary
- Adakites
-
A specific type of intermediate to felsic volcanic rock that has distinct geochemical characteristics produced by partial melting of young oceanic crust or thickened crust.
- Eclogites
-
High-pressure metamorphic rocks characterized by distinctive mineral assemblages (such as garnet–omphacite). Eclogites form at pressures typically greater than 1.2 GPa, corresponding to depths of more than 40 km.
- Intertropical Convergence Zone
-
A zone of low atmospheric pressure that encircles the Earth near the thermal equator where the trade winds of the Northern and Southern Hemispheres converge.
- Orogenic belt
-
Tectonic expression of convergent margins and plate boundaries, usually characterized by folds, faults, metamorphic rocks and the formation of mountains.
- Prograde
-
Metamorphic processes characterized by increasing temperature and pressure conditions.
- Suture zone
-
Geological boundaries where two distinct tectonic terranes or plates collided and were welded together.
- Terrane
-
A distinct and identifiable fragment distinguished from adjacent domains by different geological features, including origin, lithology, stratigraphy and geological history.
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Wang, C., Ding, L., Xiong, Z. et al. Timing of initial collision and suturing processes in the Himalaya and Zagros. Nat Rev Earth Environ 6, 357–376 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-025-00669-8
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-025-00669-8
