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  • Review Article
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Metal mining is a global driver of environmental change

Nature Reviews Earth & Environment volume 6, pages 441–455 (2025)Cite this article

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Abstract

Global metal extraction is increasing, owing to rising mineral demands from infrastructure development and the growing need for metal-intensive renewable energy technologies to mitigate climate change and phase out coal mining. However, extraction of metal ores also drives impacts on land use, water resources and biodiversity. In this Review, we evaluate mining trends of 47 metal ores between 1970 and 2022 and explore the environmental consequences. Global extraction of crude metal ores has nearly quadrupled, from 2.7 gigatonnes (Gt) in 1970 to almost 9.4 Gt in 2022, with the greatest increases in Oceania (+1,222%), South America (+929%) and Asia (+285%). Ore-specific mining activities are generally concentrated, with the top-five producers contributing on average 82.7% of the global supply in 2022. The impacts of mining are also concentrated. In 2022, about 50% of the 100,000 km2 global mining areas were located in Russia, China, Australia, the United States and Indonesia. Mining-induced water consumption, pollution and biodiversity loss substantially affect local ecosystems, with tropical rainforests and deserts being especially vulnerable. Around 70% of global metal extraction is linked to international supply chains. Enhanced environmental assessments, stricter implementation of policies, and coordinated actions across sectors throughout supply chains (mining, processing, consumers and financial markets) can help to mitigate the environmental impacts of mining.

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Fig. 1: Open-pit mining and mine-site infrastructure.
Fig. 2: Global trends of crude metal ore extraction.
Fig. 3: Contribution of top-five producers to global crude ore extraction.
Fig. 4: Global extraction trends of energy transition materials.
Fig. 5: Environmental changes driven by metal extraction.
Fig. 6: Global patterns of mining-related environmental issues.
Fig. 7: International trade increasingly drives global metal ore extraction.

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Data availability

The extraction data used in Figs. 2 and 3 are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.13843918 (ref. 58) based on an update of the metal accounts in the Global Material Flows Database developed for the United Nations International Resource Panel (UN IRP)194. Data used in Fig. 7 are available from the UN IRP Global Material Flows Database. Additional materials are available from the corresponding author upon request.

Code availability

The code used for data compilation and figure generation is available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15189697.

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Acknowledgements

The work of S.G., Se.L. and St.L. was supported by the Austrian Science Fund (FWF; grant agreement no. EFP 5) and EU’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme (RAWCLIC project, grant agreement no. 101183654). The work of V.M. was supported by grants from the EU’s Horizon Europe research and innovation programme (Open Earth Monitor project under grant agreement no. 101059548 and RAWCLIC project, grant agreement no. 101183654) and from the International Climate Initiative (Transparent Monitoring project, grant agreement no. 20_III_108).

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. Institute for Ecological Economics, Vienna University of Economics and Business, Vienna, Austria

    Stefan Giljum, Victor Maus, Sebastian Luckeneder, Stephan Lutter & Julia Gershenzon

  2. Advancing Systems Analysis, International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis, Laxenburg, Austria

    Victor Maus

  3. School of the Environment, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

    Laura Sonter

  4. Centre for Biodiversity and Conservation Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia

    Laura Sonter

  5. The Biodiversity Consultancy Ltd, Cambridge, UK

    Laura Sonter

  6. School of Geography, Earth and Atmospheric Sciences, University of Melbourne, Victoria, Australia

    Tim Werner

  7. Future Water Institute, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa

    Megan J. Cole

  8. African Climate and Development Initiative, University of Cape Town, Rondebosch, South Africa

    Megan J. Cole

  9. Escola Politecnica, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil

    Juliana Siqueira-Gay

  10. Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, MA, USA

    Anthony Bebbington

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Contributions

S.G. conceived the idea, outlined the structure and led the writing. Se.L., J.G. and V.M. produced the figures. All authors wrote sections of the article and edited the manuscript.

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Nature Reviews Earth & Environment thanks Robert Pell, who co-reviewed with Tara Ryan and Keno Ignace; and Takuma Watari for their contribution to the peer review of this work.

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Related links

Alliance for Responsible Mining (ARM): https://www.responsiblemines.org

Global Industry Standard on Tailings Management (GISTM): https://globaltailingsreview.org/global-industry-standard/

Global Material Flows Database (UN International Resource Panel): https://www.resourcepanel.org/global-material-flows-database

Initiative for Responsible Mining Assurance (IRMA): https://responsiblemining.net

International Council on Mining and Metals (ICMM): https://www.icmm.com

Lead the Charge: leadthecharge.org

Web-based environmental screening tool (South Africa): https://screening.environment.gov.za/screeningtool

Working Group Water Use in Life Cycle Assessment (WULCA): https://wulca-waterlca.org

World Development Indicators: https://datatopics.worldbank.org/world-development-indicators/the-world-by-income-and-region.html

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Giljum, S., Maus, V., Sonter, L. et al. Metal mining is a global driver of environmental change. Nat Rev Earth Environ 6, 441–455 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43017-025-00683-w

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