Introduction

Plants play a pivotal role in sustaining human life within this biosphere and particularly people of rural areas of world primarily are dependent on wild flora. The plants serve as sources of vital life-sustaining elements, providing energy in the form of food, oxygen, and essential organic compounds necessary for the functioning of all organisms on earth. Since the emergence of mankind on this planet, our reliance on plants has been paramount, encompassing fundamental needs such as sustenance, shelter, medicinal resources, and much more1. Additionally, plants are integral components of the ecosystem, offering a multitude of services to both humans and other organisms, including secondary and tertiary consumers. In their natural state, plants yield a wide array of crucial by-products essential for sustaining life, including fibres, oils, pigments, resins, and latex2.

Man’s relationship with plants is inevitable since time is immemorial, and humans interact and affect each other both directly and indirectly3. In particular, these studies open new horizons for further research on crude pharmaceuticals to discover new allopathic medicines (AMs). Many plants are being used as the main source of green medicines (GMs) in underdeveloped and developing regions; rather, in advanced countries, GMs are currently prevalent instead of AMs because the former have minimal or no adverse side effects on health4,5.

Prior to recommending or selecting a plant for pharmaceutical analysis, authenticated traditional ethnomedicine (TEM) knowledge is needed and advanced pharmaceutical research and exploration may lead to new drug discovery6. The use of TEM information or data is highly valuable for ecologists, farmers, taxonomists, pharmacologists, watershed managers, environmentalists, conservationists and wildlife managers who greatly benefit from the native plants of an area7 and these plants are also sources of livelihood for native villages and mountainous communities in the area8.

Plants used as key sources of different medicines are frequently employed in healthcare organizations in advanced nations, and they are also in high demand in the advanced world since people believe that “natural is superior”9. Knowledge of TEMs has great potential for maintaining life sustenance and maintaining the homeostasis of ecosystems on earth10. Because constant and rapid changes in the genome of pathogens have led them to be multidrug resistant (MDR) against many known AMs, the use of GMs or TEMs could be a better option because of the synergistic effect of the phyto-constituents present in medicinal plants. GMs have been declared safe, economic and effective with no or minimal side effects on the human body. According to one global estimate, 223,300 seed plants have been explored or known to humans of which only a few thousand are used in TEMs11 while just a small fraction of 50,000 plants are pharmacologically and chemically examined for novel drug discovery12.

Pakistan due to its phytogeography and climatic conditions possesses a diverse spectrum of medicinal and aromatic plants (MAPs) with an estimated 6000 plants out of a total of 2500 taxa known as curative plants and some of these are used for allopathic drug discovery13,14. Currently, around the globe, including Pakistan, extensive ethnobotanical work is being carried out to preserve and document TEMs and further their utilization in AMs through analytical techniques15.

The Azad Jammu and Kashmir (AJK) areas have unique, rich and diverse plant biodiversity and are important sources of medicinal plants for local people16. It is worth noting that a few studies on the utilization of locally important curative herbs have been conducted in the past17,18. Inadvertently, most investigations were reported qualitatively, although quantitative ethnobotanical research is quite rare in the AJK territory. The administrative area of the AJK has been divided into ten districts and the District of Sudhnoti is one of those with rich bio-culture and phytodiversity; in this area, very sporadic and scarce TEM work has been conducted. An ethnic profile study of the study area (District Sudhnoti) revealed that different ethnic communities were present and twelve prominent casts were ‘Sardar, Sudhan, Jat, Malik, Pashtoon, Mirza, Bhatti, Sheikh, Syed, Awan, Rajpoot and Gujars’ as indigenous ethnic groups. The indigenous languages spoken by the local communities of the area are ‘Urdu, Dogri, Kashmiri, Pashto and Saraiki while English is commonly used in offices and as a mode of education in institutions. It is worth noting that due to the diverse ethnic groups and presence of loft hilly terrains in the AJK region people sometimes speak the same language but in variable dialects based on the amalgam of culture and religious touch19. The most indigenous people included in the study has various professions such as peasants, nomadic tribes, shepherds, carpenters, forest protectors/guards, woodcutters, herbalists (hakeems), masons and honey bee keepers.

While numerous studies have been conducted on the ethnobotany of the area19,20, the field remains dynamic, offering opportunities for ongoing refinement and expansion of existing knowledge. Moreover, the forces of modernization, urbanization and globalization introduce shifts in traditional practices and knowledge over time, potentially impacting the accuracy and relevance of ethnobotanical data. Thus, this study contributes another scientific report to the existing literature, acknowledging and addressing the evolving nature of ethnobotanical research and its implications for understanding local plant-use practices.

This study highlights the imperative need to conduct thorough quantitative ethnobotanical investigations of plants within the study area. Such research holds immense importance for future endeavours in ethnopharmacology and the conservation of flora. The significance of this approach lies in its potential to aid in the sustainable utilization of indigenous communities’ resources and pave the way for future breakthroughs in drug discovery. The present research has several objectives, including (i) conducting an extensive field survey to document the ethnobotanically important flora known to local communities in Sudhnoti, (ii) systematically recording traditional uses, preparation methods, and cultural significance of medicinal plants as shared by the indigenous population, (iii) analysing and categorizing collected TEK data to identify prevalent plant species and their uses, (iv) quantifying the frequency of plant use in traditional medicinal practices to highlight the most significant species, (v) identifying key plant species with potential therapeutic value based on TEK data, (vi) evaluating the potential of the flora in Sudhnoti for drug discovery and development, (vii) collaborating with local communities and conservation organizations to integrate TEK into biodiversity conservation efforts and (viii) publishing research findings in peer-reviewed journals to contribute to the scientific knowledge base as well as developing accessible educational materials and outreach programs to disseminate information among local communities, researchers, and policymakers.

Materials and methods

Study area

Phytographically the Azad Jammu and Kashmir areas are located in the northern region of Pakistan and have an area of 13,297 Km2 (Fig. 1). The study area of District Sudhnoti has an area of 569 Km2 which is located between 33.71° latitude and 73.68° longitude in the foothills of the Himalayas where the elevation ranges from 4500 feet to 5400 feet.

Fig. 1
figure 1

Maps of Azad Kashmir and Sudhnoti. (A) Main map of Pakistan showing the administrative sub regions labelled in different colours. Each sub region is highlighted to indicate its boundaries and labels for clarity. (B) Inset map of the Sudhnoti region, highlighted in yellow to emphasize its ___location within Azad Kashmir. This inset provides a detailed view of the Sudhnoti sub region for better spatial context. Maps created using R Studio version 4.4.1.

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The landscape of the area is steep and mountainous. The climate of this area ranges from subtropical to temperate with Pinus roxburghii dominating in lower places and Pinus wallichiana dominating at higher altitudes. Snowfall occurs in December and January, with the majority of rainfall occurring between July and September (Table 1). The weather in the area is mild and humid throughout most of the year and the vegetation in the region includes a diverse range of herbs, shrubs, trees and climbers21.

Table 1 Average minimum and maximum temperature and precipitation in District Sudhnoti, AJK, Pakistan.
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Ethnobotanical data collection

The ethnobotanical data regarding the locally important plants in the study area were collected through several planned field visits from 2020 to 2021 via visual appraisal (VAA) and rapid rural appraisal (RAA) techniques, while the TEK data were recorded in the field notebook using a questionnaire platform through application of structured and semi-structured interview protocols22. The semi structured and structured questionnaires were used to obtain ethnobotanical data from local communities that possessed various demographic profiles and vocations (Table 2). During the surveys, important information, i.e. local name, uses, plant part used, form of recipe and mode of use, was recorded and quantitatively assessed. The local female translator was hired to conduct interviews from female communities in local languages and dialects in the Pahari, Kashmiri and Saraiki languages.

Table 2 Demographic information of the study area District Sudhnoti of the AJK, Pakistan.
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Identification of plant specimens

The data and samples of each plant species were properly gathered and processed using a Lab personal computer (PC) and the collected specimens were preserved by using a standard herbarium preparation process. All the collected specimens were identified using published photographs and illustrations, taxonomic literature and the Flora of Pakistan by taxonomist Prof. Dr. Muhammad Ishtiaq, at the Department of Botany, Mirpur University of Science and Technology, Mirpur, Pakistan23. For authentication of identification, plant names were compared with the online flora of Pakistan (http://www.efloras.org). The prepared specimens were assigned voucher numbers (MUH-) submitted to the herbarium of the Department of Botany of the university for future reference and use, granting public access.

Ethical statement

Prior official permission and approval for this research project were obtained from the Departmental Ethics Committee (DEC) via an official letter (Ref No: 230/DEC/BOT/2020; Date: 10/01/2020) and were signed by the head of the department of the university. In accordance with ethical standards and regulatory procedures, the experimental protocol for our field research involving the collection of plants was duly approved by the Departmental Ethical Committee (DEC).

Field survey permission letter

For the collection of plant samples and specimens, an official field permission letter was obtained from the District Forest Officer (DFO) (Ref no: DFO/715/2020; Dated: 30/01/2020). All the rules informed by the forest officers were followed by the relevant researchers, students and field workers. All participants were provided with informed consent, and their rights, privacy, and confidentiality were rigorously upheld throughout the study. Furthermore, the research activities were conducted in accordance with all applicable national laws and international standards governing plant research. Any necessary permits or approvals were obtained from relevant authorities to ensure full compliance with legal and ethical frameworks. Our experimental research and field studies on plants were carried out in strict accordance with the guidelines and legislation set forth by the institutional, national, and international regulatory bodies, ensuring the ethical and legal integrity of the research process.

Analysis of quantitative ethnobotanical data

The collected TEK and TEM data were tabulated in an Excel spreadsheet and subjected to further statistical analysis. For the validation and authentication of the TEK and TEM data, different standard ‘quantitative ethnobotanical indices’ were used24. For analysis, the usage value index (UVI), relative frequency of citation (RFC), informant consensus factor (ICF), fidelity level (FL), rank order popularity (ROP) and Jaccard index (JI) were used to assess the documented ethnobotanical data.

Use value (UVI)

The use value index (UVI) is a quantifiable assessment of the relative differentiation of species. The tool is used to identify important plant species in the research region based on the number of people who use them. The high index value of a species can be attributed to its frequent use in the treatment of a wide range of illnesses by a large number of informers. It was determined using the method of Savikin et al.25.

$${\text{UV}}=\sum ~\left( {{\text{Ui}}} \right)/{\text{N}}$$

where Ui is the total number of informers and N is the total number of usage reports indicated by each informer for a certain species.

Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

The incidence of a single species of plant used for a certain condition was measured using the relative frequency of citations. It was assessed using the following formula, which was developed by Vitalini et al.26:

$${\text{FC}}/{\text{N}}={\text{RFC}}$$

where FC is the number of informants who claim the utilization of a particular species and N denotes the total number of informants.

Rank order popularity (ROP)

To find the ROP, which is a correction between ‘FL and RPL’. The popularity rank of individual plant taxa was described in accordance with the FL and RPL values. The ROP is calculated by the following equation:

$$\:ROP=FL\times\:RPL$$
(1)

Generally, ROP is the most common of the different MPs used to treat a specific infirmity27.

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

The informant consensus factor was utilized to determine the commonality of the informants’ information for each use category and to assess the validity of the work being conducted using the following formula:

$${\text{ICF}}={{\text{n}}_{{\text{ur}}}} - {{\text{n}}_{\text{t}}}/{{\text{n}}_{{\text{ur}}}} - {\text{1}}$$

where nt is the number of species used and nur is the number of use reports in each category. Using the following methodology, the reported disorders were classified into 22 categories linked to body systems based on the information gathered from the interviews. The factor has a value ranging from 0 to 1, as stated in previous literature28,29.

Fidelity level (FL)

The fidelity level (FL) was calculated for the most common practice category by calculating the proportion of informants who demanded the use of a certain plant for the same central reasons30.

$${\text{FL}}={\text{Np}}/{\text{N}} \times {\text{1}}00$$

where Np denotes the number of informers who provide information on specific plant species for real usage and N denotes the number of informers who use the plants.

Jaccard Index (JI)

This analytical tool was used to compare the results of this study to those of previous studies conducted at the same or adjacent locations or in other parts of the country or world31.

$${\text{JI}}\,=\,{\text{1}}00/({\text{a}}\,+\,{\text{b}}) - {\text{c}}$$

In this equation, ‘a’ represents the number of species in our region, ‘b’ represents the number of species in the adjacent area, and ‘c’ represents the number of species that are common in both areas.

Conservation status of the plant (CSP)

To determine the conservation status of plant IUCN 2001, Red data list criteria and categories (as given in Table S1). Personal observation was also included. The data was collected through following formula31.

$${\text{CSP}}={\text{A}}+{\text{C}}+{\text{G}}+{\text{P}}$$

Cultural importance index and studying correlation

The study utilized the Cultural Importance Index (CI) as a pivotal tool for evaluating the significance of plants within traditional knowledge systems and cultural practices. By examining cross-intra-cultural data across three distinct parameters—plant use in various cultures, ethnomedicine preparation modes, and application methods in diverse localities—the researchers sought to compare these findings with the data collected in their present research, specifically focusing on Sudhnoti, AJK. The CI was calculated using the following equation.

$$\:CI=\sum\:_{i=1}^{i\:=NU}URI/N$$

NU is the total number of uses; N is the total number of participants while UR is the use report.

In addition to CI, the study employed advanced statistical analyses, such as the Spearman correlation matrix and Principal Component Analysis (PCA), to delve deeper into the relationships among key variables: age of participants, ethnobotanical knowledge, and application frequency. These analyses, facilitated by XLSTAT software version 2014 (Addinsoft, Paris, France)., allowed researchers to visualize and quantify the interplay between these factors, providing valuable insights into how age influences knowledge acquisition and application practices. By quantifying knowledge on a scale from 1 to 10 and assessing usage frequency on a scale from 1 to 7 across various age groups (as mentioned in Table S2 supplementary), the study aimed to uncover nuanced patterns and correlations that contribute to a richer understanding of traditional plant use and cultural dynamics in the AJK region.

Results

Floristic diversity

The present study utilized a floristic checklist of 150 species belonging to 69 families and the family Rosaceae, which were ranked 1st (13 species), 2nd (12 species) and 3rd (10 species). According to the ethnobotanical studies, the collected species consisted of 87 herbs, 22 shrubs, 36 trees and five species, which were ferns or climbers (Fig. 2).

Fig. 2
figure 2

Life form of the plants of District Sudhnoti AJK, Pakistan.

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Demographic perspectives of the area

The demographic and socio-economic data across various variables was presented in Table 2. In terms of language distribution, the majority speak Urdu (40 persons, 26.67%), followed by Kashmiri (35 persons, 23.33%), and Dogri (25 persons, 16.67%). For occupation, Herbalists constitute the largest group (40 persons, 26.67%), with Services following closely (29 persons, 19.33%), while Forest Protectors represent the smallest group (8 persons, 5.33%). Regarding religion, the majority adhere to Islam (144 persons, 96%), with a minority practicing Christianity (6 persons, 4%). In terms of ethnic groups, the largest group is Pashtoon (15 persons, 10%), followed by Sudhan (18 persons, 12%). Males constitute the majority (100 persons, 66.7%) compared to females (50 persons, 33.3%). The age distribution shows a significant proportion of individuals aged more than 60 years (56 persons, 37.3%). In terms of educational levels, the majority are illiterate (65 persons, 43.3%), and the most common level of experience is less than 2 years (84 persons, 56%).

Ethnobotany of the study area

Ethnobotanical research revealed that out of the 150 plant species identified in this study, approximately eight (8) were utilized as food, 13 for fuel, and eight (8) for timber. Approximately 140 of these plants were used for medicinal purposes as sources of green medicine.

Fuel types

The use of plants as a source of fuel is very prevalent because people in the area live in mountainous terrains and have no access to liquid petroleum gas (LPG) or other forms of energy for cooking. Many local plant speciesare used as sources of fuel, and approximately thirteen species are predominantly used as fuel for cooking and heating purposes in the study area. The commonly used plants were Senegalia modesta, Elaeagnus umbellata, Dalbergia sissoo, Indigofera heterantha, Desmodium elegans, Dodone viscosa, Justicia adhatoda, Punica granatum, Populus alba, Salix alba, Pyrus pashia and Ziziphus jujuba.

Fodder species

According to the study results, approximately eight (8) plants, namely, Cyperus esculentus, Imperata cylinderica Desmodium elegans, Morus alba, Grewia eriocarpa, Grewia oppositifolia, Rosa brunonii, Morus nigra and Robinia pseudoacacia, were utilized as animal and cattle fodder because the leaves of many of these plants were pleasant to graze by goats and other domestic rodents. Many of these local plants are collected and utilized to feed household animals such as cows and buffaloes to increase milk and butter yield.

Timber wood species

Among the 150 recorded plant species, approximately eight (8) species, Pinus roxburgii, Pinus wallichiana, Senegalia modesta, Juglans regia, Morus alba, Morus nigra, Olea ferruginea and Populus alba, were frequently used for the construction and preparation of furniture or other home appliances.

Medicinal plant species

A study of plants prevalent in the area revealed that residents of District Sudhnoti predominantly use 150 plant species as Traditional Ethnomedicines (TEMs) to treat a variety of diseases. These diseases include skin conditions, blood disorders, fever, stomach ailments, infectious diseases, dysentery, wounds, pain management, diabetes, headaches, cancer (Sartan), fever (pyretic), toothaches, stomach ulcers, constipation, kidney problems, as well as cardiac and digestive issues.

Plant part used

The most commonly utilized plant part in this study was the leaf (with 75 citations), followed by the roots (27 citations), whole plants (15 citations), stems (11 citations), fruits (9 citations), flowers (7 citations), and bark (6 citations); the corresponding data are shown in Fig. 3. The leaf is the most prevalently used because it is easy to collect, it is used in recipes and it is lavish.

Fig. 3
figure 3

Plant parts used for medicinal purposes in District Sudhnoti of the AJK, Pakistan.

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Mode of administration

Local plants are used in various forms to treat various infirmities and diseases. The common plant use forms used were decoction (89 citations), powder (33 citations), extract (20 citations), juice (19 citations), paste (18 citations) and raw use (5 citations), and the graphical features are presented in Fig. 4. The mode of administration is entirely dependent on the number of oral and exterior illnesses that must be addressed. The number of plants used for individual ailments ranges from one to several, and plant divisions have been reported as active compounds against a single disease.

Fig. 4
figure 4

Mode of administration of medicinal plants of District Sudhnoti of AJK, Pakistan.

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Cross-intra-cultural comparison

The cross-intra-cultural analysis shows that districts like Kotli, Sudhnoti, and Bhimber exhibit a notable abundance of plants employed for treating various ailments, the use of plant part (Fig. 5A), mode of ethnomedicinal preparations (Fig. 5B), and specific application method (Fig. 5C) utilized may vary contingent upon local availability and entrenched cultural traditions.

Fig. 5
figure 5

Cross-intra-cultural comparison among four locations of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan, for various ethnomedicinal applications. (A) Plant part usage (B) Modes of ethnomedicinal preparations (C) Modes of ethnomedicine applications.

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Principal component analysis and correlation analysis

The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) graph (Fig. 6A) reveals a pattern where variables representing participant age, ethnobotanical knowledge, and ethnomedicinal use of a plant per week tend to aggregate closely to each other, suggesting potential interrelatedness among these variables.

Moreover, the Spearman correlation analysis (Fig. 6B) further supports this observation, indicating a positive and statistically significant correlation among the variables. Specifically, there exists a significant positive correlation between participant age and both ethnobotanical knowledge and ethnomedicinal use of a plant per week. Additionally, a positive and significant correlation is observed between ethnobotanical knowledge and ethnomedicinal use of a plant per week. These findings suggest that as participant age increases, there tends to be an increase in both ethnobotanical knowledge and ethnomedicinal use of plants per week. Furthermore, individuals with higher ethnobotanical knowledge are more likely to engage in frequent ethnomedicinal use of plants.

Fig. 6
figure 6

Correlation examination among the variables age of participant, ethnomedicinal knowledge measured at a scale of 1–10, and plant use frequency per week for ethnobotany. (A) Principal component analysis showing aggregation of variables depicting strong correlation (B) Spearman correlation map.

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Table 3 Floristic and ethnobotanical data of District Sudhnoti of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan.
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Invasive species

From the plants listed in Table 3, several species exhibit invasive characteristics. Imperata cylindrica, for instance, is recognized as an invasive species due to its aggressive growth patterns, capable of outcompeting native vegetation. It forms dense monocultures, leading to reduced biodiversity, altered ecosystem functions, and heightened fire risks due to its flammability7. Similarly, Cannabis sativa has the potential to become invasive if it escapes cultivation and establishes itself in natural habitats. Its growth can disrupt native vegetation, degrade habitats, and interfere with ecosystem processes20. Furthermore, Cuscuta reflexa is a parasitic plant that poses a threat to native vegetation by attaching itself to host plants, extracting nutrients, and weakening or killing them in the process. Parthenium hysterophorus, identified as a highly invasive and aggressive annual herb, competes with native plants for resources, diminishes crop yields, induces allergies in humans and livestock, and adversely affects human health and biodiversity. Additionally, Robinia pseudoacacia is considered invasive in certain regions beyond its native range. It forms dense stands, outcompetes native vegetation, alters soil chemistry, and disrupts ecosystem dynamics7,20,29.

Quantitative analysis

Relative frequency of citation (RFC)

The data concerning the use of plants in ethnomedicines by local residents for curing different diseases were analysed by applying statistical tools such as the relative frequency of citation (RFC) to determine the most common application of plants. The RFC number ranged from 0.1 to 0.23. Plants such as Habenari latilabris (Lindl.) Hook.f. and Raphanus sativus L. had good RFCs, followed by Veronica persica Poir. (0.7), Berberis lycium Royle (0.8) and Dodone viscosa Jacq (0.9). Table 2 shows the minimum frequency of citation for numerous plant species, including Morus nigra L. (0.23), Wallichiana A.B. Jackson (0.23), Polygonum aviculare L. (0.22), and Ficus johannis Boiss. (0.22) and is the same as that for many other plants.

Use value (UV)

The significance of a species was assessed by using the use value (UV) tool, which is commonly in the range of 0.1–0.27. The maximum usage values for Potentilla nepalensis Hook (0.1), Polygonum aviculare L. (0.05) and Zea mays L. (0.07) were determined. The minimum usage value for Tribulus terrestris L. was 0.27, that for Cyperus esculentus L. was 0.25, and that for Musa paradisiaca L. was 0.21, as shown in Table 3.

Informant consensus factor (ICF)

According to the Informant Consensus Factor (ICF) tool, the collected TEM data were categorically divided into 19 categories for all disorders (Table 4). The ICF determines the informers’ understanding, which is based on the use of species selection, with a consensus value lying beneath them, which is an indicator of the prevalence of infirmities. A higher ICF indicates a higher rating for treating sickness conjunction with greater uniformity. The commonly occurring infirmities include diuretic, laxative skin issue, anticancer and antipyretic effects.

Table 4 Important disease categories prevailing in District Sudhnoti of the AJK, Pakistan.
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Rank order priority of ethnobotanical uses

The rank order priority (ROP) is a quantitative index tool that is usually used to substantiate and correlate the EB usage of cited plant species by indigenous inhabitants of a study area. The ROP index is an interrelation of FL with RPL and is known as the ‘correction factor’ when FL values are variables from RPL values. The RPL and FL values along with the ROP are presented in Table 3. The recorded ROP values ranged between 4.3 and 15.2, whereas two species, Zanthoxylum alatum (ROP = 15.2) and Rumex hastatus (ROP = 14.6), were commonly used for medicines and other TEMs. Low values of ROP for different plants indicate that younger generations have lost interest in the EB or that these plants are not easily available because of the reduced population size in the study area.

Jaccard index

The findings given in our study were connected to the findings of eight previous studies conducted in the many associated areas described in Table 5. The data indicated that among the 60 varieties of plants, the information nearness record ranged from 41.66 to 19.35, while the distinctive division ranged from 21.05 to 12.90. The Jaccard index suggests a substantial similarity in plant species composition between Sudhnoti AJK in 2015 and the aligned area (68.7%). The temporal aspect, spanning multiple years, provides insights into potential variations in plant species over time (Table 5).

Table 5 Jaccard index of the species reported in District Sudhnoti of AJK, Pakistan.
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Discussion

According to the ethnic demography of the area, most people in the area are rural and are predominantly dependent on plants and natural resources for life. It was found that village dwellers in the area are primarily dependent on plants (Table 2); these results are congruent with past works showing that, in the AJK, most people are farmers and depend on resources for life necessities32,33. Furthermore, Sudhnoti’s ___location within AJK places it within the broader context of the region’s environmental factors, including elevation, climate, and geographical features. Sudhnoti likely experiences a range of climatic conditions due to its varying elevations, which could include subtropical climates in lower elevations, characterized by hot summers and mild winters. As elevation increases, Sudhnoti transitions to temperate and potentially alpine climates, with cooler temperatures and higher precipitation levels19. This gradient in climatic conditions across Sudhnoti contributes to the diversity of plant species found within the district. Furthermore, district Sudhnoti’s ___location within the Himalayan and Karakoram mountain ranges further shapes its flora. The geographical ___location influences factors such as sunlight exposure, day length, seasonal variations, and temperature gradients, all of which impact plant growth and distribution. Sudhnoti’s diverse habitats, ranging from lowland plains to high-altitude mountain peaks, support unique plant assemblages adapted to their respective ecological niches19,20. In this study, a total of 150 species were collected and identified properly, out of which 140 plant species were used as TEMs in the area. It is also known that plants are good sources of medicines, and local people also use plants for curing veterinary medicines. According to the ethnobotanical studies, the collected species consisted of 87 herbs, 22 shrubs, 36 trees and five species, which were ferns or climbers. This difference in the ethnobotanical study may be a direct outcome of the lack of proximity to some biological barrier resulting from geographic imprisonment of species and grouped diversities in living and vegetation spaces34. Due to the presence of many environmental factors, there was less opportunity to trade ethno-pharmacological information. It was concluded from these investigations that geological isolation between groups has an extraordinary effect on changes in the local plants and floral diversity and categorized diversity in living and vegetative habitats35. There were fewer opportunities for transferring ethno-pharmacological information due to the variety of contextual conditions. These analyses indicated that geological isolation between groups has a remarkable influence on changes in floral variety36.

Since the beginning of life, there has been a close relationship between humans and plants. The current study demonstrated that the original inhabitants of the Sudhnoti area heavily rely on local flora for essential life supplies, such as fuel, fodder, food, furniture, medicines, fruits, vegetables, fence materials, and roof thatching, among others37. This can be rationalized by the fact that the bulk of the population lives in rural regions and that individuals earn relatively little each year38. The most serious danger to the flora of Sudhnoti is the harvesting of wood for timber and fuel. Pinus roxburghii, Senegalia modesta, Pinus wallichiana, Dalbergia sissoo, Morus spp. and Salix alba are the most commonly used trees for this purpose. The results indicated that the original information was primarily limited to the older people of the area and herbalists (traditional healers), while scarce information was shared among the younger generation, who also took the least interest in TEMs39. Science and technological advancements have completely altered the social structure of today’s youth because they are moving away from their ancestors’ customs and traditions. Furthermore, the findings of our study revealed that females had greater knowledge of ethnomedicine than males did, owing to their essential position in domestic functions and their permanent stay at home/village to cure various diseases among their family members, as men mostly go abroad or out of the city to earn their livelihood40. In addition, our research showed that rural groups were more familiar with ethnobotanical information than were urban communities. The local people are the most familiar with these plants and their treatment efficacy. The commonly used plants were leaves, stems, bark, fruits, flowers, roots, and whole plants and were the most commonly used plants in this study35. Many of the major active chemicals required for life on Earth are found in these regions. Because the leaf is a photosynthetic component of plants, it serves a vital function in medicine and is easily accessible throughout the year. The most common procedure used was decoction, which is composed of powder, paste, juice, extract, and raw material. The primary mode of recipe or medication formulation was decoction, and similar findings were also cited in previous works23,35. The Jaccard index was used to compare the obtained ethnomedicinal information with that of previously published publications, and it was used to explore the novelty of the research. A comparison technique was used to find new drugs from technical approaches41.

The study revealed that out of a total of 150 plants, many plants are used as sources of fuel by cutting valuable trees for domestic and commercial purposes. The common species used for fuelwood were Senegalia modesta, Elaeagnus umbellata, Dalbergia sissoo, Indigofera heterantha, Desmodium elegans, Dowia viscosa, and Pinus roxburghii; P. wallichiana; Justicia adhatoda; Punica granatum; Populus alba; Salix alba; Pyrus pashia; and Ziziphus jujuba. Previous studies have shown that Pinus spp. are commonly cut for fuelwood purposes and sold in markets as commercial sources of timber wood to earn money42,43. However, this illegal cutting of trees has culminated in drastic and severe pressure on the flora of the area.

The study determined that the highest prevalence at 50% age was noted for leaves (50%), roots (18%) and the whole region (10%). These results are congruent with previous works23,34 showing that the leaf is the most commonly used part of most TEMs in different parts of the world. The key cause of loss in many species is that leaves are easy to collect, and they are inexpensive; hence, local people sprout all or most of their leaves from young plants, which leads to drastic loss of photosynthesis. The common necessity of using leaves in various TEMs is their role as active parts of the plant and possession of high concentrations of phytoconstituents in the leaf parts due to the maximum photosynthesis process44,45,46.

In this study, one of the key factors that caused a loss of biodiversity was recognized as overgrazing by domestic animals in forest areas, which led to the loss of many plants in the area. Due to the lack of awareness and illiteracy of indigenous communities, there was a trend toward collecting the maximum or all parts of the plants for domestic and commercial purposes, which caused severe threats to the plants and might lead to thrilling into rare/endangered zones or extinction of the plants. This research work was consistent with previous work in the same field from other areas of the world28,29. Similar results were also obtained for the AJK zone by previous researchers, such as Khan et al.21, who described the TEMs of different ethnomedicinal studies of the Poonch and Hindu-Kush regions of Pakistan. The minimum usage value for Tribulus terrestris L. was 0.27 for JI, 0.25 for Cyperus esculentus L. and 0.21 for Musa paradisiaca L., as shown in Table 3. These findings are congruent with past previous works28,29,47.

In the present study, ROP ranged from 4.3 to 15.2, whereas two species, Zanthoxylum alatum (ROP = 15.2), had ROP scores, followed by Rumex hastatus (ROP = 14.6), commonly used for medicines and other TEMs. The low values of ROP for different plants indicated that younger generations have lost interest in ethnobotany or that these plants are not easily available for TEMs, possibly because of their restrictive population in the study area48,49. Similarly, previous researchers have reported similar TEK findings for the plants from different areas, and our results are consistent with these findings48,49. Hence, the high medicinal value of the plants has made them popular and prevalent in various essential botanical drugs, which might be useful for further pharmaceutical analysis to discover novel drugs and prepare indigenous communities and local people in the country47,48,49.

From the cultural perspectives, sustenance of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge in Sudhnoti, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan, seems to be influenced by a combination of social, cultural, environmental, and economic factors. Traditional ethnobotanical knowledge is often deeply intertwined with the cultural identity of communities. The passing down of knowledge from one generation to another is seen as a way of preserving cultural heritage. Similarly, traditional practices, rituals, and ceremonies often involve the use of plants for medicinal, spiritual, or symbolic purposes3. This connection reinforces the importance of plants in the cultural fabric of the community. The belief in the efficacy of traditional medicinal practices and the spiritual significance attributed to certain plants contribute to the sustained use of ethnobotanical knowledge28. Cross-cultural comparisons underscore the prominence of medicinal plants in ethnobotanical studies across AJK. While districts like Kotli3, Sudhnoti35, and Bhimber28 exhibit a notable abundance of plants employed for treating various ailments, the use of plant part, mode of ethnomedicinal preparation, and specific application method utilized may vary contingent upon local availability and entrenched cultural traditions. It’s worth noting that ethnomedicinal knowledge predominantly transfers orally through generations within families and communities, albeit the degree of formal documentation within these communities may fluctuate3. Previous studies highlight mounting pressures on native vegetation due to the over-exploitation of medicinal plants, particularly noticeable in areas like Sudhnoti and Neelum19,36. Distinct challenges faced by each community, such as healthcare accessibility alternatives, can significantly influence patterns of plant use. A deeper exploration of cross-cultural examination unveils nuances in flora composition between high-altitude regions like Neelum Valley36and foothill areas like Poonch21, precipitating preferences for different medicinal plants. Unique cultural beliefs surrounding specific plants are observed, with certain communities favoring plants imbued with religious significance for medicinal purposes. Furthermore, variations in preparation methods, such as decoctions or poultices, underscore the diverse approaches to medicinal plant utilization across communities7. Intercommunity knowledge exchange, facilitated by factors like trade routes and social interactions, leads to overlaps in plant use among bordering communities. The presence of multiple languages in AJK poses challenges in accurately documenting traditional plant knowledge, necessitating the assistance of local translators to ensure precise understanding.

Ethnobotanical knowledge is typically transmitted orally from experienced community members (elders, herbalists) to younger generations. This form of transmission ensures the continuity of knowledge within the community. Learning often occurs through apprenticeship, where individuals acquire practical knowledge by actively participating in the collection and use of plants under the guidance of experienced practitioners. From the data gathered, it can be assumed that Sudhnoti communities in Azad Kashmir often rely on agriculture for subsistence. Traditional knowledge of plant use for agricultural practices, crop management, and pest control is crucial for livelihoods and food security. Furthermore, for those practicing herbalism, the economic aspect of plant use becomes significant. The sustainable harvesting and sale of medicinal plants contribute to the economic sustenance of individuals and communities35. The unique flora and fauna of an area create an environment where people have adapted to and have a deep understanding of the local plant species. This connection encourages the continued use of plants in various aspects of life. The recognition of the value of certain plants for medicinal or cultural purposes may drive efforts to conserve local biodiversity. Apart from these factors, external interest, such as tourism or the involvement of researchers, may contribute to the documentation and validation of traditional knowledge. This external recognition can reinforce the importance of preserving and transmitting this knowledge. Traditional knowledge is often held by older community members, and the cultural respect for elders ensures the passing down of knowledge to younger generations. Understanding and respecting these factors is crucial for sustainable development, conservation of biodiversity, and the continuation of traditional ethnobotanical knowledge in Sudhnoti, Azad Kashmir49.

To explore the novelty of the research, the Jaccard index was determined, and it was discovered that there was a shift in traditional ethnobotanical knowledge in the youth and linked regions. The most surprising level of resemblance was found with the investigation of having uncovered ethnic values, similar kinds of vegetation and geology in the two regions35. This proved that there were many reports of the use of TEMs, which had not been reported from the District Sudhnoti or other districts of the Azad Jammu and Kashmir. This novel indicator could be exploited for further novel drug discovery and development36.

Ethnobotanical knowledge reported in the research might be applied in enhancing the well-being of rural and local communities in Sudhnoti, Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Serving as a repository of traditional wisdom, this knowledge contributes significantly to primary healthcare by providing accessible and culturally relevant remedies. Additionally, the use of edible plants enriches local diets, addressing nutritional needs, especially in regions where agriculture might be limited3. Beyond health, ethnobotanical practices reported might contribute to the economic sustenance of communities, offering livelihoods through herbalism and promoting sustainable resource management. The cultural and spiritual significance of certain plants fosters a sense of identity and community cohesion. Furthermore, this knowledge contributes to environmental conservation by promoting biodiversity conservation and sustainable practices. By empowering communities through education and awareness, ethnobotanical knowledge becomes a key element in building resilience against external challenges, ensuring the holistic well-being of Sudhnoti local populations. This research work will be very useful for future drug discovery based ethnomedicinal information, cultural data conservation and phytodiversity conservation of wild flora of the area for sustainable availability.

Conclusion

This ethnobotanical study encompassed numerous remote regions within the Sudhnoti District of the AJK, Pakistan. Research has revealed the prevalent use of plants in traditional ethnomedicines (TEMs) for treating various ailments. Notably, the leaves and decoction form of TEM were the primary modes of application in the area. The detrimental factors contributing to the loss of biodiversity included the cutting of woody trees for lumber and fuel, overgrazing, and human-induced fires. This investigation suggested that plants exhibiting a high use value index (UVI) and possessing therapeutic properties warrant further pharmacological scrutiny or screening. This step is crucial for substantiating ethnobotanical knowledge and identifying potential novel medications, ultimately leading to advancements in nano-drug discovery and drug development.